INTENSIVE 
FARMING 

by  L     C.   CORBETT 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

L06  ANGEL6S.  CALIFORNIA 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 
LIBRARY 


INTENSIVE  FARMING 


Intensive  Farming 

BY 

L.  C.  CORBETT 


Illustrated 


HANDBOOKS 


NUMBER  29 


NEW   YORK 

OUTING  PUBLISHING   COMPANY 

:M 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY 
OUTING  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


All  rights  reserved 


-S4-15 


CONTENTS 


CHAl  PAGE 

I.  THE  PROBLEM n  - 

II.  VEGETABLE  GROWING      .     .      .  17  _. 

III.  ONIONS 24 

IV.  CELERY 32 

V.  FRAME  CULTURE        ....  41 

VI.  THE  VEGETABLE  FORCING  INDUS- 
TRY    46 

VII.  FRUIT  GROWING 59 

VIII.  SMALL  FRUITS 81 

IX.  THE  CITRUS  INDUSTRY    ...  88 
X.  PLANT  BREEDING  AS  A  FACTOR  IN 

INTENSIVE  FARMING    ...  95 

XI.  SEED  GROWING 105 

XII.  THE  NURSERY  AN  EXAMPLE  OF 

INTENSIVE  CROP  PRODUCTION  109 

XIII.  IRRIGATION 114 

XIV.  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY     .      .      .      .  124 
XV.  ECONOMICS  OF  INTENSIVE  INDUS- 
TRIES        129 

XVI.  THE    CROPPING    SYSTEM    AS    A 

UNIT 135 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


A  Field  of  Celery  Grown  by  the 

"  New  Celery  Culture  Plan  "     Frontispiece 

FACING   PAGE 

Intensive  Agriculture  as  Seen  in  an  Onion 

Field 24 

A  Field  of  Earth  Blanched  Celery  .      .        40 

A  Block  of  Outdoor  Grown  Head  Let- 
tuce       48 

An  Apple  Harvest 64 

Lemon  Harvesting  Scene      ....  88 

Peaches  by  the  Car  Load     .      .      .      .  112 

Picking  the  Golden  Globes  in  California  144 


INTENSIVE  FARMING 


INTENSIVE   FARMING 


•2.  &  V  76 
THE    PROBLEM 


EACH  year  more  millions  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  United  States  become  de- 
pendent upon  those  who  grow  the  food 
stuff  of  the  nation.  Our  population  is  growing 
rapidly.  There  are  more  people  to  be  fed. 
There  must  be  an  increased  harvest  to  supply 
this  increasing  demand.  This  problem  has  in 
the  past  given  us  little  concern  because  there 
were  vast  areas  yet  undeveloped.  The  increased 
harvest  resulted  from  bringing  more  acres 
under  cultivation.  The  population  is  still  in- 
creasing at  as  rapid  a  rate  as  formerly,  yet  the 
wild  lands  have  for  the  most  part  been  brought 
under  the  plow.  The  capacity  of  these  soils, 
under  customary  methods  of  agriculture,  has 
been  measured  and  their  contribution  is  now 
reckoned  in  our  annual  harvest. 

The  problems  presented  are;   (i)   a  nation 
with  its  tillable  area  under  fence  and  its  pro- 
ductive capacity  tested;  and  (2)   a  rapidly  in- 
n 


12        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

creasing  total  population  and  a  much  more 
rapidly  increasing  urban  population.  A  study  of 
our  foreign  trade  relations  presents  significant 
facts  for  consideration  in  this  connection.  We 
have  been  heavy  exporters  of  grains  and  bread 
stuffs,  but  within  the  last  decade  there  has  been 
a  rapid  decline  in  this  respect.  In  fact,  we  have 
ceased  to  be  an  important  exporting  nation. 
Yet  with  all  this  there  has  been  no  diminution 
of  the  annual  harvest,  the  decline  in  exports 
is  not  to  be  accounted  for  by  decreased  harvest 
but  rather  as  a  result  of  increased  home  con- 
sumption. We  will  soon  cease  to  be  exporters 
of  bread  stuffs,  all  that  our  fields  produce  under 
present  cultural  practices  will  be  required  to 
feed  our  own  population. 

After  this  condition  has  been  reached,  what 
then?  Shall  we  decrease  the  individual  ration 
in  order  to  provide  for  the  increase  in  popu- 
lation as  has  been  done  in  China?  Or  shall 
we  regulate  the  increase  in  population  to  con- 
form to  the  present  producing  power  of  the 
land?  Or  shall  we  demand  a  more  bountiful 
harvest  from  our  arable  areas? 

Few  will  willingly  restrict  their  menu  either 
in  variety  or  quantity  in  order  that  an  increased 
population  may  be  fed.  The  increased  attention 
given  to  the  problems  of  eugenics  indicates  that 


THE   PROBLEM  13 

it  is  the  desire  to  improve  rather  than  limit 
the  increase  in  population.  The  answer  to  the 
problem  seems  to  rest,  therefore,  in  increased 
production  from  the  available  areas;  in  other 
words,  more  intensive  methods  of  farming 
must  be  adopted  in  order  that  the  growing 
population  may  be  properly  fed  and  clothed. 

The  present  movement,"  back  to  the  land," 
will  to  a  limited  extent  delay  the  time  when  the 
problem  of  supply  and  demand  will  become 
acute,  but  come  it  surely  will  in  this  country  as 
it  has  in  the  Orient.  While  there  is  a  decided 
movement  landward  our  statistics  of  population 
clearly  show  the  tremendous  increase  in  town 
and  city  population  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  rural  community.  If  this  ratio  is  main- 
tained the  time  when  demand  will  outrun  sup- 
ply will  be  greatly  hastened.  But  the  problems 
of  supplying  bread  and  meat  are  not  the  only 
problems  in  feeding  a  nation.  Grains  and 
meats,  under  present  conditions,  can  be  trans- 
ported great  distances  and  kept  to  serve  the 
needs  of  months  and  even  years. 

Not  so  with  vegetables  and  fruits.  The  excel- 
lence of  these  products  is  rapidly  lost  if  stored, 
and  many  do  not  lend  themselves  to  modern  cold 
storage  methods,  while  all  that  can  be  stored 
emphatically  determine  the  length  of  the  period 


14        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

without  intervention  of  law.  Perpetual  sup- 
plies of  fruits  and  vegetables  are  now  available 
through  the  modern  art  of  canning,  through 
cold  storage,  and  by  means  of  rapid  transporta- 
tion combined  with  cold  storage  in  transit.  Rapid 
transportation  and  the  perfection  of  the  refrig- 
erator car  have  made  it  possible  to  feed  the 
great  consuming  populations  which  have  in  re- 
cent years  come  together  in  our  great  cities.  The 
gardens  which  supply  our  cities  have  been  ex- 
tended from  the  limits  of  the  wagon  haul — 
which  determines  the  operations  of  the  market 
gardener — to  beyond  the  limits  of  our  own 
domain.  Rapid  transportation  and  refrigera- 
tion have  made  the  Southern  truck  grower  a 
competitor  with  the  Northern  greenhouse  gard- 
ener. 

Invention  has  made  it  possible  for  a  single 
individual  to  easily  seed,  care  for,  and  harvest 
the  product  of  160  acres  of  land.  The  whole 
trend  of  the  times  has  been  to  increase  and  ex- 
tend the  efficiency  of  the  individual.  As  a  re- 
sult we  have  built  up  single  crop  systems  of 
farming  which  are  at  the  same  time  most  dang- 
erous, most  exhaustive,  and  least  productive 
per  unit  area  of  any  type  of  agriculture  known. 
It  is  this  system  of  garnering  nature's  resources 
upon  which  we,  as  a  nation,  have  been  depend- 


THE   PROBLEM  15 

mg  to  feed  our  people  and  create  our  export 
trade. 

We  shall  probably  continue  to  extend  the  area 
tributary  to  the  great  markets,  we  shall  con- 
tinue to  invent  labor  saving  devices,  but  with 
all  this  we  are  face  to  face  with  the  problem 
of  increased  production  from  the  area  under 
cultivation. 

Increased  production  from  a  unit  area  in 
agriculture,  the  same  as  increased  production 
per  capita  in  manufacture,  means  scientific 
management. 

Scientific  management  is  rapidly  being 
adopted  in  certain  lines  of  agriculture.  The 
dairy  industry  furnishes  most  striking  illustra- 
tions of  this.  The  recent  developments  in  the 
production,  harvesting,  transportation,  and 
marketing  of  citrus  fruits  from  California 
marks  another  signal  success  of  the  application 
of  scientific  management. 

It  has  been  determined  that  agriculture  can 
be  capitalized  and  scientifically  managed  quite 
as  readily  and  with  as  marked  a  degree  of  suc- 
cess as  can  the  building  of  cars  or  the  manu- 
facture of  lumber.  In  fact,  one  of  the  great 
handicaps  to  successful  agricultural  develop- 
ment in  the  past  has  been  lack  of  dynamic  capi- 
tal and  lack  of  expert  management. 


16        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

Intensive  results  demand  greater  investment 
in  land,  equipment,  and  oversight.  Intensive 
farming,  except  on  the  most  limited  scale,  re- 
quires a  greater  expenditure  for  manures  and 
seeds  than  is  ordinarily  provided,  a  more  com- 
plete equipment  of  implements,  larger  outlay 
for  packages  and  containers,  and  higher  priced 
oversight.  Intensive  farming  is  not  restricted 
to  fruit  growing  and  gardening  as  is  too  often 
supposed,  but  can  be  applied  to  nearly  all  sys- 
tems of  mixed  farming.  Intensive  farming  has 
for  its  object  the  most  complete  utilization  of 
the  soil  and  the  production  of  maximum  yields. 


CHAPTER  II 

• 

VEGETABLE   GROWING 

*T  TEGETABLE  growing  offers  greater  di- 
^  versity  in  types  of  intensive  farming  than 
any  other  branch  of  agriculture.  The 
simplest  type  of  intensive  farming  is  that  of  the 
special  crop,  such  as  potatoes,  onions,  celery, 
or  cabbage,  grown  in  connection  with  other 
farm  crops.  This  type  of  farming  closely  re- 
sembles fruit  culture,  except  that  in  the  one 
case  perennial  plants  are  dealt  with  while  in 
the  other  the  crops  are  all  annuals. 

A  more  complex  plan  of  vegetable  growing 
is  that  usually  employed  by  the  truck  farmer, 
in  which  the  potato  and  cabbage  crops  are  fol- 
lowed by  corn  in  the  same  year,  spinach  by 
string  beans  or  cucumbers,  and  where  straw- 
berries are  grown  the  first  season  between  rows 
of  potatoes.  A  still  more  complicated  arrange- 
ment is  practiced  by  the  market  gardener  in 
which  closely  planted  rows  of  onions,  radishes, 
or  lettuce  may  be  placed  between  rows  of  po- 
17 


18        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

tatoes  or  early  cabbage,  the  onions,  radishes, 
and  lettuce  going  to  market  in  a  few  weeks, 
thus  clearing  the  ground  so  as  to  give  the  po- 
tatoes or  cabbage  the  whole  area.  This  is 
followed  by  planting  summer  cabbage  between 
the  potatoes  before  they  are  dug  and  sowing 
fall  beets,  turnips,  or  beans  between  the  early 
cabbage  before  it  is  ready  to  harvest.  By 
double  cropping  and  a  succession  of  crops  up- 
on the  same  soil  it  is  practicable  to  grow  four 
or  more  crops  on  the  same  area  in  a  single 
season. 

Following  upon  this  intensive  utilization  of 
the  land  during  the  open  growing  season  comes 
a  system  in  which  protective  devices  are  used 
to  lengthen  the  season  and  to  insure  crops  when 
they  could  not  be  safely  grown  in  the  open.  For 
this  purpose  hot  beds,  cold  frames,  and 
"  muslins "  or  muslin  covered  frames  are  em- 
ployed. Both  double  cropping  and  a  succes- 
sion of  crops  is  resorted  to  in  frame  farming. 
The  next  step  in  the  scale  brings  the  crop  within 
the  artificially  heated  glass  structure,  where  the 
grower  has  practically  all  the  factors  of  plant 
growth,  save  that  of  sunlight,  under  his  con- 
trol. In  the  modern  forcing  house  soil,  heat, 
and  moisture  are  absolutely  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  gardener,  but  he  cannot  make  the 


FEGETABLE    GROWING       19 

sun  shine  in  cloudy  weather,  and  no  amount  of 
heat  will  take  its  place. 

These  brief  outlines  of  the  general  vegetable 
cropping  systems  now  in  common  use  give  a 
hint  of  the  highly  intensive  character  of  the  in- 
dustry. 

Potatoes.  The  potato  is  an  extremely  cos- 
mopolitan crop.  It  has  followed  the  civilized 
man  into  almost  every  quarter  of  the  earth. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  as  many  acres 
devoted  to  its  cultivation  as  to  all  other  vege- 
table crops  combined  and  the  revenue  from  the 
crop  is  about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  total  value 
of  the  vegetable  products  of  the  country.  As  a 
wealth  producer  it  ranks  fifth  among  all  the 
crops  of  the  nation.  Furthermore  the  value  of 
our  potato  crop  alone  is  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  the  combined  crop  of  the  tree 
fruits  of  the  United  States. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  aggregate  value 
of  this  crop,  the  yield  per  acre  for  the  whole 
country  is  far  less  than  that  of  European  coun- 
tries. There  are  individual  growers  in  some 
especially  favored  localities  who  produce  high 
yields.  In  the  potato  business,  however,  gross 
yield  is  not  always  a  true  measure  of  net  re- 
turns. Under  some  conditions  it  is  possible  for 
the  gross  yield  to  be  in  inverse  ratio  to  net  re- 


20        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

turn.  Fortunately  for  the  grower  this  condition 
seldom  actually  exists. 

Potato  growing  has  come  to  be  a  high  art 
within  recent  years.  Expert  growers  have 
learned  to  select  their  seed  by  using  the  "  tuber 
unit "  method  in  combination  with  the  "  prog- 
eny row  "  to  build  up  highly  productive  strains 
of  seed. 

The  tuber  unit  method  of  potato  improve- 
ment is  based  on  tubers  weighing  from  six  to 
eight  ounces,  carefuly  selected  with  regard  to 
type,  size,  and  uniformity.  As  each  potato  is 
planted  it  is  cut  into  four  pieces  of  as  nearly 
the  same  size  as  possible  by  splitting  it  length- 
wise. Each  piece  is  placed  from  twelve  to  four- 
teen inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  next  tuber 
is  treated  in  like  manner,  a  vacant  space  being 
left  between  the  four  pieces  forming  any  par- 
ticular tuber.  This  makes  it  possible  to  mark, 
during  the  growing  season,  the  groups  which 
are  vigorous  and  free  from  disease.  The  most 
productive  of  these  can  be  selected  at  harvest 
time  so  that,  by  two  observations,  the  tubers 
secured  are  healthy,  vigorous,  and  productive. 
The  product  of  the  four  hills  from  any  par- 
ticular tuber  can  be  thrown  together  and  re- 
tained for  next  season's  planting.  The  product 
of  any  tuber  which  is  carried  over  and  planted 


VEGETABLE    GROWING      21 

by  the  tuber  unit  method  in  a  row  the  second 
season  constitutes  a  progeny  row. 

Under  good  cultivation  yields  of  four  hun- 
dred bushels  per  acre  are  not  at  all  uncommon 
where  high  grade  seed  is  used.  Modern  ma- 
chinery has  made  it  possible  to  handle  the  crop 
on  an  extensive  basis  at  a  minimum  of  cost. 
The  gang  plow,  the  potato  planter,  the  riding 
cultivator  and  the  potato  digger  have  all  com- 
bined to  lessen  man's  labor  in  handling  the  crop 
and  to  lessen  the  cost  of  cultivation. 

There  are  two  distinctive  potato  industries 
in  the  United  States.  One  is  the  production  at 
the  South  of  early  potatoes  for  the  great 
city  markets.  This  industry  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin  but  has  attained  immense 
proportions.  Growers  plant  the  crop  early  in 
the  season,  generally  using  Northern  grown 
seed.  This  Southern  industry,  therefore,  makes 
a  market  for  large  quantities  of  seed  potatoes 
grown  at  the  North. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  industry  is  that 
the  tubers  are  harvested  as  soon  as  they  are 
large  enough  regardless  of  the  stage  of  ma- 
turity of  either  the  tubers  themselves  or  of  the 
vines.  Potatoes  of  this  character  are  highly 
perishable  and  must  be  handled  as  quickly  as 
other  perishable  vegetable  crops.  These  truck 


22        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

crop  potatoes  occupy  the  land  only  a  short 
period,  usually  from  February  to  June,  and  are 
followed  by  another  crop,  often  corn.  Extens- 
ive truck  growers  frequently  plant  as  many  as 
two  hundred  and  fifty  or  three  hundred  acres  of 
potatoes.  Some  idea  of  the  character  of  the  in- 
dustry may  be  gained  from  the  fixed  charges 
connected  with  the  production  of  the  crop. 
Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  interest  on  the 
land  and  noting  only  items  of  direct  expendi- 
ture, the  list  will  appear  somewhat  as  follows : 

Plowing  one   acre $    4.00 

Harrowing  one  acre 60 

Planting    (with    planter) i.oo 

Seed  for  one  acre  (12  bu.) 12.00 

Fertilizer    (1,000   Ibs.) 17.50 

Cultivating    2.50 

Digging    2.00 

Packing  up   100  bbls 10.00 

Packages,   100  bbls.,  at  22c 22.00 

Covers,   100,  at  3c 3.00 


Total  cost  of  production $74.00 

Transportation,    100  bbls $  35.00 

Selling,  10  per  cent 20.00 

Total  expense   $129.00 

loo  barrels  at  $2.00 (gross  returns)  200.00 

Net  returns    $  71.00 

The  capital  required  to  finance  the  planting 
of  one  hundred  acres  or  more  of  potatoes  is  a 
very  considerable  sum.  The  risk  involved  is 


VEGETABLE   GROWING      23 

greater  with  this  crop  than  with  most  other 
crops  save  those  grown  in  greenhouses.  The 
cost  of  producing  this  class  of  potatoes  is  high 
but  as  a  rule  the  returns  are  satisfactory  but 
not  greater  than  for  many  other  vegetables. 
The  net  return  from  this  crop,  considering  the 
labor  and  expense  involved,  should  be  greater 
than  it  is.  Such  crops  should  pay  at  least  one 
hundred  per  cent,  over  cost  of  production,  but 
the  potato  by  no  means  averages  such  a  re- 
turn. 


CHAPTER  III 

ONIONS 

THE  onion  crop  of  the  United  States 
presents  a  greater  variety  of  cultural 
practices  than  any  other  crop  grown 
outside  glass  structures.  The  distribution 
of  the  plant  is  almost  universal,  but  its  com- 
mercial cultivation,  while  by  no  means  universal, 
is  localized  in  regions  possessing  a  wide  divers- 
ity of  climatic  conditions.  The  soils  upon  which 
onions  are  grown  vary  much  less  than  the  cli- 
mate and  the  cultural  practices. 

The  onion  industry  is  chiefly  concerned  with 
the  production  of  mature  bulbs  for  human  con- 
sumption. A  large  portion  of  the  labor  ex- 
pended upon  this  crop  is  for  the  production  of 
such  bulbs,  and  the  chief  return  from  the  in- 
dustry is  derived  from  their  sale. 

The  production  of  mature  bulbs  for  human 
consumption  rests  upon  two  general  practices: 
First,  sowing  the  seed  in  place  early  in  the 
season  where  the  bulbs  are  to  mature,  and, 
Second,  sowing  the  seed  in  especially  prepared 


ONIONS  25 

seedbeds,  sometimes  hotbeds  or  cold  frames, 
and  transplanting  the  young  plants  to  the  field. 
By  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  onion  crop 
produced  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  the  Eastern 
states,  and  California  is  grown  from  seed  sown 
in  place. 

Many  market  gardeners,  however,  practice 
the  "New  Onion  Culture,"  i.  e.  transplanting 
from  the  hotbed  or  seedbed.  The  extensive 
use  of  this  method  is  found,  though,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Texas  Bermuda  Onion  industry. 
This  industry  is  carried  on  almost  exclusively 
by  the  transplanting  method. 

In  the  North  where  the  transplanting  method 
is  employed  the  Prizetaker  type  of  onion  is  al- 
most universally  grown.  This  is  a  soft,  tender 
long  season  type.  By  starting  the  seedlings  in 
hotbeds  in  February  or  March  several  weeks 
are  added  to  the  growing  season.  The  bulbs 
grow  larger,  a  perfect  stand  of  plants  is  in- 
sured and  as  a  consequence  a  maximum  yield 
per  acre  is  secured. 

Another  interesting  onion  industry  is  that  of 
growing  "  sets,"  small  bulbs  which  are  grown 
from  seed  scattered  thickly  so  that  the  young 
plants  crowd  one  another  severely,  thus  caus- 
ing them  to  ripen  prematurely  after  forming  a 
small  yet  very  perfect  bulb.  While  this  industry 


26        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

is  localized  in  three  or  four  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, it  differs  markedly  from  other  types  of 
onion  growing  and  is  at  the  same  time  highly 
remunerative. 

This  leads  to  a  consideration  of  the  green 
bunch  onion  industry.  Onion  sets  while  used 
to  a  limited  extent  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
mature  edible  bulbs,  are  chiefly  used  for  the 
production  of  early  green  bunch  onions.  Market 
gardeners  in  the  vicinity  of  every  large  town 
and  city  grow  a  quantity  of  early  bunch  onions, 
either  from  sets  grown  from  seed  as  above  de- 
scribed or  from  another  class  of  onions  known 
as  Potato  Onions  or  "  Multipliers."  Potato 
Onions  are  hardier  than  most  varieties  grown 
as  sets  from  seeds.  The  Potato  Onion  perpetu- 
ates itself  chiefly  by  subdivision  of  the  large 
bulbs,  each  large  bulb  splitting  up  into  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  ones,  each  of  which  is  planted 
out  to  be  harvested  for  green  bunching  or  al- 
lowed to  grow  to  maturity  to  be  used  next 
season  to  increase  the  planting  stock  by  again 
splitting  up  into  several  bulbs. 

There  is  yet  another  class  of  onions  used  for 
this  purpose,  known  by  various  names  as  "  top 
onions,"  "top  sets,"  multipliers,  etc.,  all  of 
which  produce  tiny  bulblets  at  the  top  of  a 
seed  stalk.  Sometimes,  seeds  and  bulblets  are 


ONIONS  27 

produced  on  the  same  head.  These  sets  or 
bulblets  are  carried  through  the  winter  in  a 
dry  state,  the  same  as  ordinary  sets  grown 
from  seed,  and  are  planted  out  early  the  follow- 
ing spring,  while  Potato  Onions  are  usually 
planted  in  the  autumn,  and  in  those  localities 
where  they  need  winter  protection  mulched  with 
straw  or  coarse  litter. 

Onion  culture  is  carried  on  as  a  successful 
commercial  industry  chiefly  in  the  states  north 
of  the  Ohio  River  and  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  industry  also  thrives  in  certain  districts 
in  each  of  the  states  bordering  the  Pacific,  where 
the  crop  frequently  is  grown  on  irrigated  land. 
The  delta  region  of  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi has  long  been  noted  for  the  production 
of  a  peculiar  type  of  onions,  grown  little  in  any 
other  section  of  the  United  States,  known  as 
the  Creole  Onion. 

Of  late  years  the  Bermuda  onion  has  been 
extensively  planted  as  an  autumn  crop  on  the 
irrigated  lands  in  Southwest  Texas  and  the  val- 
ley of  the  Rio  Grande  River. 

It  has  recently  been  determined,  through 
the  work  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  that  the  large  mild  flavored  Denia 
or  Spanish  onions,  so  extensively  imported  into 
this  country,  can  be  successfully  grown  in  cer- 


28        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

tain  portions  of  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New  Mex- 
ico, and  without  doubt  in  Southern  California. 

Onion  culture  is  not  confined  to  humid  sec- 
tions, although  a  great  and  profitable  crop  is 
grown  in  this  portion  of  our  domain.  Certain 
varieties  attain  the  highest  perfection  when 
grown,  during  the  winter  months,  under  irriga- 
tion, in  the  semi-tropical  portions  of  the  United 
States. 

Onion  Seed  Growing.  Onion  seed  is  suc- 
cessfully grown  in  several  sections  of  the  con- 
tinent. Early  in  our  history  the  seed  was  pro- 
duced in  the  New  England  states,  and  a  small 
seed  industry  has  ever  since  been  maintained 
in  that  section.  Some  of  our  most  successful 
commercial  sorts  have  been  originated  in  the 
Danvers  section,  from  which  they  have  derived 
their  name.  A  commercial  onion  seed  industry 
also  exists  in  northeast  Ohio,  northwestern 
Pennsylvania,  and  western  New  York,  but  the 
chief  source  of  supply  is  the  California  seed 
fields.  In  the  vicinity  of  San  Jose,  California, 
hundreds  of  acres  of  bulbs  are  planted  each 
autumn  for  the  production  of  seed.  Most  sorts 
thrive  in  the  region  and  produce  seed  suitable 
for  general  commercial  purposes. 

The  seed  supply  for  the  Bermuda  onion  in- 
dustry has  not  been  commercially  produced  in 


ONIONS  29 

the  United  States.  It  can  be  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia but  is  not  satisfactory.  A  little  seed  has 
been  produced  in  Texas  but  the  yield  is  low  and 
the  crop  uncertain.  The  supply  of  seed  for  this 
branch  of  the  industry  will  for  some  time,  with- 
out doubt,  continue  to  be  imported  from  Ten- 
eriffe. 

Storage.  Onions  are  not  as  highly  perish- 
able as  some  of  the  other  important  vegetable 
products.  Green  bunch  onions  are  equally  as 
perishable  as  other  green  vegetables,  and  Ber- 
muda onions  are  not  adapted  to  storage  as  are 
some  other  types  of  mature  bulbs.  The  main 
crop  of  bulbs  grown  from  black  seed,  such  as 
the  various  Danvers,  Southport  Globe,  and 
Weathersfield,  can  all  be  kept  for  several 
months  under  proper  storage  conditions.  This, 
together  with  the  fact  that  onions  of  all  classes, 
save  green  bunch  stock,  can  be  safely  shipped 
long  distances  to  market,  renders  the  crop  one 
of  the  most  satisfactory  of  the  vegetable  list. 
These  qualities  are  a  great  advantage  in  the 
handling  and  marketing  of  any  crop.  It  is 
possible,  with  a  crop  possessing  such  qualities, 
to  select  the  time  for  marketing,  as  well  as 
the  market  to  which  it  will  be  offered.  With 
highly  perishable  products  no  delays  are  pos- 
sible. The  onion  crop  on  the  other  hand  does 


30        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

not  have  to  be  forced  upon  the  market  in  mass 
at  harvest  time.  Gluts  and  consequent  depres- 
sion of  prices  can  be  averted.  The  grower,  if 
prepared  to  store  his  crop  at  harvest  time,  can 
gain  the  advantage  of  any  advance  in  price 
which  otherwise  might  go  to  the  speculator. 

Yields  of  onions  vary  with  the  soil,  the 
season,  culture  given,  and  variety  grown  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  six  hundred  bushels 
per  acre  for  such  sorts  as  Yellow  Globe  and 
Red  Weathersfield,  and  from  12,000  pounds 
to  as  high  as  48,000  pounds  per  acre  for  Ber- 
muda onions.  The  average  for  the  Weathers- 
field  class  is  about  three  hundred  bushels  per 
acre,  while  the  average  for  the  Bermuda  type 
is  about  20,000  pounds  per  acre. 

The  average  gross  income  for  the  Northern 
field  crop  is  about  $150.00  per  acre,  with  maxi- 
mum returns  under  high  prices  of  $400.00  per 
acre.  The  Bermuda  crop  returns  from  $300.00 
to  $400.00  per  acre,  depending  upon  the  price. 
Banner  yields  and  high  prices  have  returned 
as  high  as  $1,200.00  per  acre.  As  compared 
with  cereal  crops  onions  produce  from  six  to 
fifteen  times  as  much  gross  return,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  cost  of  production  is 
much  higher.  The  land  adapted  to  the  crop 
is  restricted  in  area,  is  more  valuable,  is  more 


ONIONS  31 

expensive  to  prepare,  and  requires  more  liberal 
use  of  expensive  fertilizers.  The  seed  is  more 
expensive  and  the  cultivation  and  harvesting 
also  more  costly. 

While  all  the  fixed  charges  for  intensive 
crops  are  higher  than  for  cereals  they  are  not 
sufficiently  high  to  reduce  the  net  profits  to  the 
same  level  as  those  for  cereals. 

A  comparative  accounting  between  onions 
and  corn,  both  hoe  crops,  would  appear  some- 
what as  follows: 

Corn  Onions 

Interest  on    land $  2.00  $  6.00 

Cost   of  preparation 3.00  6.00 

Cost  of  seed 25  8.00 

Cost   of  planting l.oo  3.00 

Cost   of  cultivation l.oo  15.00 

Cost  of  harvesting 2.50  10.00 

Cost  of  fertilizer oo  40.00 


9.75         88.00 

400  bu. 

Market  Value  of  Crop :  at  soc= 

50  bu.  at  700= 35.00       200.00 


Net   returns    $25.25      $112.00 

The  net  return  from  the  onions  is  almost 
five  times  as  much  as  from  corn,  but  the  cost 
of  producing  the  onions  is  about  nine  times  as 
as  great.  More  capital  and  more  knowledge 
are  required  to  grow  the  onion  crop  but  it 
pays. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CELERY 

CELERY  is  one  of  the  most  remunerative 
vegetable  crops.  Its  commercial  culti- 
vation, however,  is  restricted  to  localities 
possessing  a  combination  of  soil  and  climatic 
factors  peculiarly  suited  for  it.  It  is  naturally 
a  cool  climate  moisture-loving  vegetable.  It 
thrives  best  on  thoroughly  subdued  swamp 
muck  lands, — lands  rich  in  organic  matter,  suf- 
ficiently decayed  to  have  an  abundance  of  avail- 
able plant  food,  and  with  the  water  table  with- 
in eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  of  the  surface. 
Lands  of  this  character,  at  the  North,  within 
hauling  or  shipping  distance  of  the  markets 
have  for  many  years  been  devoted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  this  crop. 

Such  locations  were  unable  to  produce  a 
merchantable  crop  before  July  and  under  best 
storage  conditions  the  crop  was  not  available 
later  than  March.  This  territory  was  able  to 
supply  the  market  from  July  until  March  or 
for  about  eight  months.  The  remainder  of  the 
32 


CELERY  33 

year  the  markets  were  bare  of  this  most  delicate 
and  appetizing  vegetable. 

It  was  found  by  taking  advantage  of  the 
cooler  portions  of  the  year  that  soils  in  South- 
ern California,  in  the  Sacramento  Valley, 
and  in  Florida  could  be  made  to  produce 
certain  types  of  celery  to  a  high  degree  of  per- 
fection and  that  this  product  could  be  brought 
upon  the  market  to  supplement  the  supply  from 
the  Northern  fields  and  to  extend  the  season. 

The  advances  made  in  the  handling  of  per- 
ishable freight  have  been  one  of  the  chief  fac- 
tors contributing  to  the  commercial  success  of 
celery  culture  in  both  California  and  Florida. 
Fortunately  celery  is  not  so  highly  perishable 
as  some  of  the  vegetable  crops  now  grown  and 
successfully  transported  to  distant  markets,  but 
its  bulk  restricts  the  shipment  by  express  and 
its  perishability  prohibits  the  use  of  slow 
freight. 

Besides  the  factors  already  mentioned,  the 
extension  of  the  celery  business  has  been  greatly 
benefited  by  a  variety  list  possessing  well  marked 
types  particularly  adapted  to  different  systems 
of  cultivation. 

The  dwarf  self-blanching  types  represented 
by  White  Plume  and  Golden  Self-blanching  are 
peculiarly  suited  for  climatic  and  shipping  con- 


34        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

ditions    which    preclude   the   use   of  earth   in 
blanching  the  crop  for  market. 

For  the  most  part  the  early  crop  of  the  North 
is  blanched  with  boards  or  paper,  as  earth  can 
not  be  successfully  used  during  the  heated  por- 
tion of  the  year.  If  earth  is  used  great  care 
and  caution  are  required  on  the  part  of  the 
grower.  The  late  crop  at  the  North,  whether 
standard  or  dwarf  sorts  are  used,  is  always 
blanched  with  earth.  In  Florida  the  entire  crop 
is  blanched  either  by  means  of  boards  or  paper. 
Besides  the  advantages  already  mentioned  a 
greater  number  of  stalks  can  be  grown  per  acre 
when  dwarf  sorts  are  used  than  when  standard 
green  varieties  are  used.  Blanching  with  boards 
or  paper  permits  the  rows  to  be  placed  at  about 
one-half  the  distance  required  when  earth  is 
used  for  blanching;  this  also  increases  the  in- 
tensity of  the  crop.  Celery  is  sold  by  the  dozen 
bunches.  The  profit  per  acre  depends,  there- 
fore, not  only  upon  the  price  per  dozen  but  up- 
on the  number  of  dozens  produced. 

During  recent  years  the  hotel  and  dining 
car  trade  has  been  demanding  small  celery.  The 
small  heart  stalks  are  most  desirable  and  this 
has  tended  to  stimulate  close  planting  and  the 
use  of  dwarf  sorts.  These  demands  of  the 
trade  will  ever  tend  to  keep  the  celery  industry 


CELERY  35 

on  a  mediocre  basis  for  the  reason  that  the 
highest  quality  is  not  attainable  in  the  dwarf 
self-blanching  types.  The  acme  of  perfection 
as  regards  quality,  texture,  and  flavor  are 
obtained  only  in  the  standard  green  sorts  pro- 
duced under  mild  temperature  conditions  and 
by  the  use  of  earth  for  blanching. 

Another  important  element  in  the  success  of 
the  celery  industry  has  been  added  in  recent 
years  through  the  control  of  the  celery  blight. 
Celery  blight  is  the  most  serious  trouble  with 
which  celery  growers  have  to  contend.  It  is 
one  of  those  insidious  plant  diseases  always 
lurking  about  and  ready  to  devastate  the  crop 
at  any  stage  of  its  development.  Like  all  other 
plant  diseases  its  treatment  is  from  the  stand- 
point of  prevention  rather  than  cure.  The 
grower  should  therefore  take  precautions  to 
prevent  its  gaining  a  foothold  in  the  seedbed 
by  spraying  the  young  plants  frequently  with 
Bordeaux  Mixture.  Only  healthy  plants  that 
have  been  grown  without  check  should  be  set 
in  the  field. 

The  removal  from  seedbed  to  field  should 
be  accomplished  in  such  manner  as  to  give  the 
least  possible  check  or  shock  to  the  young 
plants.  If  the  area  cannot  be  irrigated,  trans- 
planting should  be  done  at  a  time  of  day  to 


36        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

favor  the  plants  and  prevent  flagging.  Weather 
conditions  should  be  taken  advantage  of  as  far 
as  possible.  If  the  season  is  showery  it  should 
be  the  aim  to  transplant  to  the  field  either  in 
the  evening  or  just  before  a  shower.  In  lo- 
calities where  natural  conditions  cannot  be 
readily  taken  advantage  of  at  transplanting 
time  the  plants  should  be  severely  pruned  and 
the  roots  puddled  in  order  to  insure  the  least 
possible  check  to  the  plants.  If  the  industry 
is  conducted  on  a  small  acreage  it  is  often  ad- 
vantageous to  install  a  sprinkler  system  for 
starting  the  young  plants,  particularly  if  the 
crop  is  in  a  rotation  with  others  upon  which  the 
sprinkler  system  of  watering  can  be  safely 
used. 

If  the  crop  is  grown  on  an  extensive  scale 
in  a  region  where  irrigation  is  essential  to  the 
greatest  success  it  will  be  found  advisable  to 
provide  facilities  which  will  enable  the  water 
to  be  supplied  by  means  of  ditches  and  furrows 
between  the  rows  rather  than  by  the  sprinkler 
system.  A  large  quantity  of  water  can  be  ap- 
plied within  a  given  time  and  the  foliage  need 
not  be  wet,  a  very  important  consideration  in 
the  control  of  celery  blight.  It  is  much  more 
difficult  to  control  celery  blight  during  showery 
weather  than  during  dry  weather.  Any  prac- 


CELERY  37 

tice,  therefore,  which  produces  conditions  simi- 
lar to  those  during  showery  weather  increases 
the  risk  of  crop  production.  Every  factor  of 
cultivation,  should  so  far  as  possible,  be  an  ele- 
ment in  crop  insurance.  The  important  ele- 
ments of  crop  insurance  in  celery  culture  are: 
First,  good  seed;  second,  carefully  grown  and 
transplanted  plants;  third,  thorough  spray- 
ing for  control  of  blight  and  other  diseases; 
fourth,  irrigation  of  such  a  character  as  not  to 
counteract  the  effects  of  the  spray  and  yet  suf- 
ficient to  insure  the  crop  against  adverse  cli- 
matic conditions. 

The  two  factors  which,  more  than  any 
others,  determine  the  hollowness  or  pithiness  in 
celery  are  seed  and  checks  to  growth  either  in 
the  seedbed  or  field.  Poor  seed  may  be  re- 
sponsible for  hollow  stalks,  but  a  severe  check 
to  the  plants  in  the  seedbed,  at  the  time  of 
transplanting,  or  during  the  growing  period  in 
the  field  may  cause  either  hollow  stalk  or  pithi- 
ness. The  utmost  care  should  be  used  to  guard 
against  such  adverse  conditions. 

Plants  with  hollow  stalks  resulting  from  bad 
seed  have  young  heart  stalks  as  well  as  the 
older  leaf  stalks  hollow,  while  in  the  hollow- 
ness  or  pithiness  resulting  from  adverse  condi- 
tions the  young  heart  stalks  will  be  solid,  and 


38        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

under  favorable  treatment  the  crop  may  grow 
out  of  the  condition. 

From  what  has  been  stated  the  factors  which 
control  the  aggregate  profit  per  acre  from 
growing  celery  in  any  given  locality  can  be  de- 
termined. 

The  cost  of  production  and  the  profits  per 
acre  for  the  different  systems  will  be  somewhat 
as  follows: 


Plants  6 
Fifteen 
inches 
apart 
Interest     on     investment     in 

land    $  20.00 

Interest   on   equipment 30.00 

Depreciation      of     equipment, 

including    blanching    boards    30.00 
Cost  of  preparation  of  land..       8.00 

Cost   of    fertilizer 60.00 

Cost  of  growing  plants 20.00 

Cost  of  transplanting  plants.     20.00 
Cost  of  cultivation,   including 

hand    work    15.00 

Cost   of   blanching — labor 25.00 

Cost   of   harvesting 25.00 

Cost  of  crates 75-QO 

Transportation,   25c  per  crate  125.00 


in.  apart 

in  rows 

Three 

Double 

feet 

rows  6  ft. 

apart 

apart 

$  20.00 

$  20.00 

15-00 

15.00 

25.00 

20.00 

8.00 

8.00 

40.00 

40.00 

10.00 

10.00 

10.00 

10.00 

10.00 

1000 

15.00 

15.00 

15.00 

15.00 

40.00 

40.00 

65.00 

65.00 

$453,00        $273.00        $268.00 


Average     crop     will     return 

bunches    per    acre 5,ooo 

to 

7,000 

Average     crop     will     return 
crates    per    acre 500-600 


2,500 

to 
3,500 


2,500 

to 

3,500 


200-300       200-300 


CELERY          39 

Gross  return  at  2oc  per  dozen  $1,000  $500  $500 

to      to      to 

$1,400  $700  $700 

Net  return  $547  $227  $232 

to      to  to 

$947  $427  $432 

Since  celery  lends  itself  to  a  variety  of  sys- 
tems of  growing  it  can,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions of  soil  and  climate,  be  made  one  of  the 
most  profitable  garden  crops.  The  so-called 
11  New  Celery  Culture,"  is  a  plan  of  growing 
self-blanching  varieties  so  that  no  artificial  ma- 
terials such  as  boards,  paper,  or  tiles  are  used 
for  blanching  purposes.  This  plan  does  away 
with  horse  cultivation  and  permits  placing  an 
enormous  number  of  plants  on  an  acre.  The 
field  is  laid  off  in  beds  sixteen  feet  wide  and  the 
plants  are  set  in  squares  eight  or  ten  inches 
apart  each  way.  Narrow  walks  are  main- 
tained between  the  beds  and  as  the  plants  ap- 
proach maturity  boards  are  placed  close  to  the 
outside  rows  of  plants  on  either  side  of  the 
walk  as  shown  in  frontispiece.  These  boards 
hold  the  plants  in  an  upright  position  and 
assist  in  blanching  the  plants  of  these  rows. 
The  blanching  of  the  plants  in  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  beds  is  accomplished  by  the  shade 
cast  by  the  heavy  foliage  of  the  plants  them- 
selves. 
On  a  limited  area  with  very  fertile  soil  and  pro- 


40        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

visions  for  sub-irrigation  this  system  of  culti- 
vation can  be  made  highly  profitable. 

Considering  the  fact  that  such  a  great  num- 
ber of  plants  can  be  grown  by  the  "New  Cul- 
ture System "  and  that  a  system  of  double 
cropping  will  permit  growing  both  an  early  and 
a  late  crop  on  the  soil  during  the  same  season, 
the  crop  is  especially  attractive  from  the  grow- 
ers point  of  view. 

To  grow  the  early  and  late  crop  on  the  same 
area  it  is  necessary  to  plant  two  sorts  in  al- 
ternate rows  three  feet  apart.  By  using  Golden 
Self-blanching  or  White  Plume  for  the  early 
crop  and  Giant  Pascal  or  Boston  Market  for 
the  late,  the  alternate  rows  of  the  early  sort  can 
be  blanched  with  boards  or  paper  as  soon  as 
large  enough  and  by  marketing  it  immediately 
the  ground  can  be  cleared  in  time  to  make  the 
earth  between  the  six  foot  rows  in  which  the 
late  sort  stands  available  for  blanching  it  as 
much  as  is  desirable  before  placing  it  in  storage. 

Few  other  vegetable  crops  lend  themselves 
to  culture  under  such  extremes  of  latitude,  to 
both  early  and  late  planting,  to  long  distance 
shipment,  and  to  winter  storage  as  does  celery. 


§ 


CHAPTER  V 

FRAME  CULTURE 

WHILE  the  use  of  cloches  or  hand 
glasses  which  forms  such  an  important 
factor  in  French  gardening  has  never 
become  a  part  of  the  American  system  of  cul- 
ture, chiefly  because  of  the  difference  in  cli- 
matic conditions  between  the  two  countries, 
frame  culture  has  grown  to  important  com- 
mercial proportions  not  only  in  the  leading 
market  garden  sections  adjacent  to  the  large 
cities,  but  in  other  favored  localities  where  cli- 
matic conditions  and  transportation  facilities 
are  such  as  to  foster  the  practice.  Near  many 
of  the  Northern  cities  the  use  of  both  hotbeds 
and  cold  frames  have  long  been  an  important 
feature  of  the  work  of  the  market  gardener. 
They  are  used  not  only  for  lengthening  the 
season  by  starting  the  plants  earlier  than  they 
could  be  produced  in  the  open  ground,  but  for 
actually  growing  crops  to  a  marketable  stage 
of  maturity. 

The  frame  industry  antedates  the  greenhouse 
41 


42        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

industry.  But  it  is  within  comparatively  re- 
cent years  that  the  frame  covered  with  a  sash 
or  with  muslin  has  come  to  be  an  important 
factor  in  crop  production  at  various  points  along 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  south  of  Baltimore.  The 
favorable  soil  and  climatic  conditions  which  ex- 
ist there  permit  the  development  of  this  in- 
dustry at  all  points  favored  with  suitable 
transportation. 

The  frame  industry  is  a  notable  example  of 
a  high  class  of  crop  insurance,  an  insurance 
which  makes  man  master  of  all  the  factors  of 
plant  growth  save  light  and  extreme  cold.  By 
the  use  of  frames  the  danger  of  injury  from 
frost,  wind,  storm,  or  drouth  are  eliminated. 
Frame  crops  suffer  only  from  severe  cold  (not 
usual  in  the  region)  or  lack  of  sunshine.  This, 
therefore,  places  it  among  the  highly  intensive 
systems  of  farming.  Intensive  farming  returns 
large  yields  from  restricted  areas.  Frame  cul- 
ture produces  large  yields  from  limited  areas, 
and  therefore  conforms  to  the  definition  of  in- 
tensive cultivation.  It  is  also  intensive  because 
some  of  the  uncertain  factors  of  ordinary 
methods  of  crop  production  have  been  elimi- 
nated. The  more  nearly  crop  production  can 
be  made  to  approach  the  art  of  manufacturing 
the  more  intensive  (certain)  it  becomes. 


FRAME    CULTURE  43 

All  forms  of  crop  insurance  tend  to  intensify 
the  industry,  while  all  devices  and  methods  of 
culture  which  tend  to  insure  or  make  a  crop 
more  certain  add  to  the  cost  of  production,  yet 
as  a  rule  such  methods  pay  a  large  return  on 
the  investment. 

Frame  culture  not  only  insures  the  crop,  but 
rewards  the  grower  by  high  quality.  The 
greater  the  extent  to  which  a  crop  is  protected 
against  adverse  conditions,  the  more  delicate 
and  refined  will  be  its  product.  Lettuce  grown 
on  rich  land  covered  by  a  good  frame  is  more 
delicate  in  texture  and  flavor  than  the  same 
variety  grown  in  the  open. 

The  frame  at  the  South  serves,  in  great 
measure,  the  function  of  the  greenhouse  at  the 
North.  The  important  frame  crops  are  lettuce, 
beets,  radishes,  parsley,  and  cucumbers,  all  of 
which  figure  largely  in  the  forcing  house  prod- 
ucts at  the  North.  Frame  culture,  besides  in- 
suring the  crop,  makes  it  possible  to  grow  crops 
with  success  at  a  season  when  they  could  not 
be  produced  in  the  open.  The  land  is  made  to 
return  larger  crops  and  more  of  them  and  is 
kept  in  profitable  service  for  a  longer  period. 
An  individual  illustration  of  the  practices  of  a 
frame  grower  will  be  sufficient  for  the  whole 
industry. 


44        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

A  successful  frame  grower's  area  appears  to 
be  limited  to  about  three  acres.  With  this 
area  and  two  thousand  sash,  an  adequate  water 
supply,  and  plenty  of  manure — two  or  three 
car  loads  per  acre  annually — it  is  possible  to 
secure  satisfactory  results  provided  the  project 
is  launched  under  favorable  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  and  the  man  is  endowed  with  am- 
bition and  good  sense.  Intensive  work  of  this 
kind  will  prove  one  of  the  quickest  roads  to 
ruin  for  the  careless  or  indifferent  cultivator. 
The  investment  is  large  and  the  risks  involved 
are  exceeded  only  by  those  of  the  greenhouse 
operator.  There  is,  therefore,  no  provision 
for  errors.  A  carefully  planned  and  managed 
frame  yard  will,  however,  produce  a  yearly 
gross  return  of  from  $2,000.00  to  $3,000.00 
per  acre. 

The  returns  will  vary  greatly  from  year  to 
year,  but  in  the  main  they  will  be  satisfactory. 
I  have  known  large  yards  to  yield  a  $1,000.00 
crop  of  lettuce  in  the  autumn,  another  equally 
valuable  crop  of  lettuce  in  the  spring,  and  a 
$300.00  crop  of  beans  following  the  spring  let- 
tuce and  a  crop  of  cow  peas  during  the  summer. 
In  another  case  lettuce  returned  $1,000.00  per 
acre  in  the  autumn,  a  like  return  in  the  early 
spring,  and  this  crop  was  followed  by  trans- 


FRAME    CULTURE  45 

planted  cucumbers  which  had  been  started  in 
in  a  hotbed  which  in  turn  brought  a  return  of 
$1,000.00  per  acre,  $3,000.00  per  acre  from 
September  to  July,  without  greenhouses  but 
with  manure,  frames,  good  soil,  and  brains. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  VEGETABLE   FORCING  INDUSTRY 

BEFORE  there  was  an  important  com- 
mercial vegetable  industry  at  the  South, 
there  grew  up  a  demand  for  crisp  fresh 
vegetables  out  of  season.  The  gardeners  about 
the  larger  towns  and  cities  of  the  North  felt 
this  demand  and  set  about  meeting  it  as  best 
they  could  by  means  of  hotbeds  and  cold  frames, 
but  these  were  makeshifts  at  best  and,  although 
successful  for  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  they 
left  a  long  interval  during  midwinter  when  the 
markets  were  bare  of  fresh  garden  products. 

As  a  result  of  the  perfection  of  appliances 
for  heating  glass  structures,  both  by  hot  water 
and  by  steam,  it  became  possible  to  heat  large 
greenhouses  satisfactorily.  About  this  time  the 
clumsy  frame  structure,  covered  by  movable 
sash,  gave  way  to  the  sash  bar  construction 
and  the  modern  forcing  house  was  evolved. 
Small  glasses  were  replaced  by  large  ones, 
ventilating  apparatus  came  into  general  use, 
and  the  gardener  became  master  of  the  ele- 
46 


VEGETABLE   FORCING        47 

ments  and  the  winter  production  of  vegetables 
as  well. 

By  this  evolutionary  movement  the  vegetable 
forcing  industry  came  into  existence.  From 
a  small  beginning  with  crops  which  had  been 
grown  in  frames,  such  as  lettuce  and  radishes, 
the  industry  and  the  special  varieties  upon  which 
it  is  based  have  been  developed. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  vegetable  forcing 
industry,  transportation  changes  have  made  it 
possible  to  profitably  operate  commercial  vege- 
table gardens  and  farms  in  the  extreme  south- 
ern part  of  our  country  and  successfully  trans- 
port the  product  to  the  cities  of  the  North.  In 
the  beginning  the  forcing  house  had  no  competi- 
tion from  this  Southern  field  and  even  now  there 
is  a  trade  which  is  willing  to  pay  a  slight  pre- 
mium for  the  forcing  house  product.  The  dif- 
ference in  price  between  the  forcing  house  prod- 
uct and  the  Southern  product  is  not  sufficient 
either  in  amount  or  constancy  to  give  the  forc- 
ing house  crop  a  decided  advantage. 

The  art  of  growing  vegetables  under  glass 
has  been  perfected  to  a  degree  which  permits 
the  Northern  greenhouse  grower  to  compete 
sucessfully  with  the  Southern  fields.  The  home 
grower  has  a  slight  advantage  in  special  de- 
livery and  freshness  and  this  together  with  the 


48        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

cost  of  transportation  and  the  factors  of 
crop  insurance  necessary  at  the  South  evens 
up  matters  to  such  an  extent  that  the  forcing 
house  product  can  be  produced  at  a  profit. 

The  list  of  crops  commercially  grown  in 
forcing  houses  is  by  no  means  an  extended  one. 
For  the  most  part  lettuce,  cucumbers,  tomatoes, 
and  radishes  are  the  crops  grown  and  their  rel- 
ative importance  is  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  named. 

As  a  rule  the  vegetable  forcing  houses  of 
the  Eastern  United  States  are  devoted  to  let- 
tuce during  the  autumn  and  winter,  while  in  the 
spring  they  may  be  used  for  either  cucumbers 
or  tomatoes.  Radishes  and  beet  greens  are 
often  grown  as  catch  crops  with  tomatoes  or 
cucumbers. 

Lettuce  is  the  most  important  and  at  the 
same  time  the  most  profitable  crop  grown  by 
gardeners  under  glass.  The  glass  area  de- 
voted to  vegetable  forcing  has  for  the  most  part 
been  erected  for  growing  this  crop.  The 
methods  of  handling  the  crop  have  been  so  sys- 
tematized that  a  maximum  of  crop  can  be  pro- 
duced in  a  minimum  of  time  and  space. 

The  seedbed  occupies  only  a  small  area  in 
the  nursery.  The  young  seedlings  are  trans- 
planted to  occupy  only  about  one-fourth  the 


VEGETABLE   FORCING        40 

space  in  the  nursery  that  they  require  in  the 
growing  house.  One  nursery  can  be  so  oper- 
ated as  to  supply  four  houses  of  equal  area,  all 
to  be  planted  at  the  same  time,  but  as  the  crops 
are  required  in  succession  one  nursery  can  be 
operated  so  as  to  supply  plants  for  six  or  eight 
times  its  area  of  growing  space.  This,  together 
with  the  short  season  required  in  the  growing 
house,  makes  this  crop  the  most  intensive  vege- 
table crop  grown.  It  is  possible  to  grow  two 
crops  of  lettuce  and  one  of  cucumbers  or  to- 
matoes and  a  catch  crop  of  radishes  or  beet 
greens  in  each  house  annually,  four  crops  on 
the  same  soil  in  the  latitude  of  Boston.  This 
is  surely  real  estate  boomer's  literature,  but  it 
is  the  truth. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  lettuce  grown  in  forc- 
ing houses,  head  lettuce  and  bunch  or  cutting 
lettuce.  The  head  lettuce  is  also  extensively 
grown  in  the  open  both  at  the  North  and  in 
Florida  and  as  a  frame  crop  in  the  Carolinas 
and  in  Virginia.  The  forcing  house  production 
of  this  type  of  lettuce  is  confined  to  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  the  environs  of  Boston  being  the  cen- 
ter of  greatest  production.  In  fact,  most  of  the 
important  American  varieties  of  this  type  of 
lettuce  have  been  produced  in  this  locality. 

Head  lettuce  when  grown  in  forcing  house 


50        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

or  frame  requires  to  be  planted  in  squares  from 
nine  by  nine  inches  to  twelve  by  twelve  inches, 
depending  upon  the  soil  and  sort  grown.  At 
nine  by  nine  inches  there  are  77,440  plants  per 
acre  and  at  twelve  by  twelve  inches  43,560 
plants  per  acre.  It  should  be  possible  to  main- 
tain practically  a  perfect  stand  of  plants  either 
in  the  house  or  frame,  and  at  the  rate  of  thirty- 
five  cents  per  dozen  or  three  cents  per  head  the 
gross  income  per  crop  per  acre  is  $2,323.20 
for  the  closely  planted  and  $1,306.80  for  the 
wider  spaced  plants. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  in  handling  so  intensive 
a  crop  as  this,  the  distance  at  which  the 
plants  are  placed,  other  things  being  equal, 
measures  to  a  great  degree  the  profit  which 
may  be  derived  from  a  crop.  In  fact,  potato 
growers  who  study  their  business  have  long 
since  discovered  that  there  is  a  limit  in  both 
directions  on  the  interval  between  rows  and 
the  distance  between  the  hills  in  a  row. 
Maximum  yield  and  profitable  production  are 
both  dependent  upon  these  factors  and  what  is 
true  with  potatoes  is  much  more  apparent  with 
the  more  valuable  crops  like  lettuce. 

Another  type  of  lettuce  is  also  grown  on  an 
extensive  scale  in  forcing  structures  in  the  terri- 
tory north  and  west  of  the  Ohio  River.  This 


VEGETABLE   FORCING        51 

is  a  loose,  nonheading  lettuce,  known  as  bunch 
or  cutting  lettuce.  It  is  distinctively  a  forcing 
lettuce.  The  Grand  Rapids  Forcing  was  orgi- 
nated  under  forcing  house  conditions  and  thrives 
in  that  environment  better  than  in  the  open, 
although  the  Simpson,  which  is  undoubtedly  the 
parent  stock,  thrives  well  in  the  open. 

The  loose  lettuce  forcing  industry  is  conducted 
precisely  the  same  as  the  head  lettuce  industry 
so  far  as  propagation  and  transplanting  the 
young  plants  are  concerned.  The  Grand  Rapids 
type,  however,  will  thrive  and  produce  a  satis- 
factory crop  at  much  closer  intervals  than  the 
heading  type.  The  plants  are,  therefore,  set 
closer,  each  grower  varying  the  planting  dis- 
tance to  suit  his  market  and  conditons.  Another 
important  respect  in  which  this  industry  differs 
from  the  other  is  in  the  general  method  of 
marketing. 

Grand  Rapids  is  almost  universally  sold  by 
the  pound  instead  of  by  the  count  as  in  the  case 
of  head  lettuce.  This  has  advantages  as  well 
as  disadvantages.  The  advantage  is  that  the 
crop  can  usually  be  disposed  of  with  equal  ease 
while  the  plants  are  yet  small  or  after  they 
have  attained  their  maximum  growth.  The 
great  disadvantage  is  that  the  growers  do  not 
exercise  the  care  in  growing  the  crop  that  would 


52        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

be  necessary  were  it  sold  on  size  and  condition 
rather  than  by  the  pound. 

In  the  region  where  loose  lettuce  is  grown  the 
tomato  is  a  more  popular  companion  crop  than 
cucumbers,  although  both  are  used. 

Tomatoes.  As  has  already  been  pointed  out, 
tomatoes  are  as  a  rule  grown  as  a  rotation  crop 
with  lettuce.  This  is  not  true  in  all  cases,  for 
some  growers  have  provided  special  equipment 
for  the  crop.  In  fact,  until  the  modern  general 
purpose  vegetable  forcing  house  was  evolved 
special  equipment  was  necessary  for  forcing 
the  tomato.  The  modern  house  answers  well 
for  lettuce,  cucumbers,  and  tomatoes  as  rota- 
tion crops.  When  tomatoes  are  grown  as  a 
forcing  crop  during  midwinter  at  the  North 
best  results  are  obtained  when  bottom  heat  can 
be  applied.  This  requires  special  equipment, 
as  the  modern  vegetable  house  is  not  designed 
for  bottom  heat.  At  the  time  of  the  year  when 
the  crop  is  usually  grown  in  rotation  with  let- 
tuce, the  sun  heat  is  increasing  instead  of  wan- 
ing and  bottom  heat  is  of  less  consequence  to 
the  development  of  the  crop. 

The  winter  tomato  crop  at  the  South  has 
more  seriously  affected  the  forced  crop  of  to- 
matoes than  has  the  lettuce  crop  of  the  South 
the  forced  crop  of  lettuce.  Notwithstanding 


VEGETABLE   FORCING       53 

this,  many  growers  at  the  North  maintain  that 
the  Southern  crop  is  no  menace  to  their  spring 
house  grown  crop.  There  is  truth  in  this  argu- 
ment without  doubt,  because  the  quality  of  to- 
matoes ripened  off  the  vine,  as  fruits  transported 
long  distances  must  be,  is  not  as  high  as  to- 
matoes ripened  normally  on  the  vine.  The  ad- 
vantage of  the  house  grown  fruit  is  known  only 
to  the  enlightened  buyer.  In  other  words,  the 
forcing  house  product  has  an  advantage  only 
on  a  discriminating  market. 

It  is  upon  a  discriminating  market  more  than 
any  single  factor  that  the  future  of  the  forcing 
industry  depends.  Every  forcing  crop  should 
possess  some  visible  distinguishing  mark.  The 
forcing  house  tomato  should  be  distinctive  in 
size,  color,  shape,  and  method  of  marketing. 
It  should  not  be  a  legitimate  competitor  of 
the  outdoor  grown  tomato.  When  so 
handled  it  will  appeal  to  a  special  trade  and 
command  a  higher  price.  People  should  not 
be  left  to  find  these  points  of  merit  for  them- 
selves. The  grower  who  is  to  succeed  with  high 
grade  specialties  of  this  character  must  use  the 
same  methods  as  others  introducing  or  extend- 
ing the  sale  of  their  products.  Greenhouse 
products  are  as  legitimate  subjects  for  adver- 
tising as  a  breakfast  food  or  a  cracker. 


54        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

At  the  outset,  by  some  fortunate  coincidence, 
forcing  house  tomatoes  were  sold  by  the  pound, 
the  only  sane  standard  of  measure  for  any  food 
product.  The  outdoor  crop,  save  that  grown 
at  the  South  during  the  winter,  has  always  been 
sold  in  the  Northern  markets  by  capacity 
measures.  In  this  respect  at  least  the  markets 
have  observed  distinction  between  the  regular 
season  and  the  forced  crop.  This  is  not  enough, 
the  other  points  of  distinction  above  pointed  out 
should  be  developed  and  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  purchaser. 

In  comparison  with  the  outdoor  crop  forcing 
house  tomatoes  sell  for  ten  to  fifteen  times  as 
much.  A  good  price  for  outdoor  tomatoes  is 
one  or  two  cents  per  pound,  while  forcing  house 
fruit  sells  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents 
per  pound. 

Greenhouse  tomatoes,  trained  to  the  single 
stem,  should  produce  an  average  of  five  to  six 
pounds  per  plant  and  such  plants  can  be  suc- 
cessfully grown  when  planted  eighteen  by  eigh- 
teen inches  or  about  660  plants  to  each  1,000 
square  feet  of  house  area.  Six  hundred  plants 
at  five  pounds  each  equals  3,000  pounds  from 
1,000  square  feet  or  from  a  space  of  ten  by  one 
hundred  feet.  Three  thousand  pounds  at  fif- 
teen cents  equals  $450.00.  At  the  same  rate 


VEGETABLE   FORCING        55 

a  house  thirty-three  feet  wide  and  one  hundred 
feet  long  should  return  $1,350.00  per  season, 
or  as  much  more  as  the  increased  price  figures. 

Success  in  tomato  growing  under  glass  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  skill  and  care  of  the 
operator.  There  are  few  insect  pests  to  be 
guarded  against,  but  there  are  other  enemies, 
particularly  nematodes,  or  eelworms,  which  are 
very  destructive.  Fortunately,  however,  these  * 
pests  are  easily  controlled  by  soil  sterilization. 
This  can  be  accomplished  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
by  forcing  live  steam  through  perforated  pipes 
buried  in  the  soil  of  the  benches,  by  using  drain 
tile  for  the  same  purpose  or  by  using  an  inverted 
pan  over  the  area,  or  in  still  another  way  by 
cooking  the  soil  before  placing  it  in  the  benches 
in  a  specially  prepared  sterilizer.  Any  one  of 
these  systems  when  well  executed  will  be  ef- 
fective. Besides  these  root  worms  which  cause 
swellings  upon  the  roots  of  the  plants  and  in- 
terfere with  their  normal  functions,  there  are 
other  serious  plant  troubles  to  be  guarded 
against. 

The  tomato  blight,  which  is  a  serious  disease 
in  the  field  under  some  conditions,  is  also  a 
menace  to  the  house  grown  crop.  This  trouble 


*See  "Garden  Farming"  for  details  of  soil  steriliza- 
tion. 


56        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

appears  as  velvety  brown  spots  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaves  and  if  not  immediately 
checked  it  will  spread  through  the  house  and 
destroy  the  crop.  It  causes  the  leaves  affected 
to  turn  yellow,  then  brown,  and  finally  to  dry 
up.  It  can  be  controlled  by  spraying  the  plants 
with  ammoniacal  carbonate  of  copper  or  by 
Bordeaux  mixture.  Vigilance  and  quick  action 
are  the  price  of  control  of  this  disease.  The 
difficulties  are  not  insurmountable  and  the  suc- 
cessful crop  is  a  profitable  one. 

In  growing  vegetables  under  glass  agricul- 
ture reaches  its  highest  perfection.  In  the  forc- 
ing house  the  grower  has  complete  control  of 
more  factors  of  crop  production  than  under  any 
other  conditions.  In  fact,  the  only  factor  not 
under  his  control  is  sunlight.  The  grower  regu- 
lates more  completely  than  in  any  other  type  of 
agriculture  the  mechanical  character  of  the  soil, 
its  fertility,  its  water  content,  its  heat,  and  the 
temperature  and  humidity  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  sunlight  is  beyond  his  control  save  in  so 
far  as  he  is  able  to  take  advantage  of  those 
localities  having  the  greatest  amount  of  sun- 
shine during  the  forcing  season. 

Cucumbers.  The  cucumber  is  one  of  the 
more  important  members  of  the  forcing  colony. 
As  a  rule,  they  occupy  the  houses  a.t  the  close 


VEGETABLE   FORCING       57 

of  the  season  prolonging  the  use  of  the  houses 
well  into  the  hot  weather,  long  after  such  crops 
as  lettuce,  cauliflower,  and  radishes  must  be 
abandoned  on  account  of  their  heat  require- 
ments. For  this  reason  the  cucumber  becomes 
a  very  important  member  of  the  group.  The 
tomato  is  its  only  rival  for  greenhouse  space  at 
the  season.  At  the  extreme  Southern  limit  of 
the  vegetable  forcing  industry  cucumbers  are 
grown  as  the  only  greenhouse  crop.  At  the 
North,  however,  they  are  almost  universally 
used  after  the  third  crop  of  lettuce. 

At  the  season  at  which  cucumbers  occupy  the 
greenhouse,  following  lettuce  as  they  usually  do, 
little  expense  is  required  in  maintaining  the  tem- 
perature. Care  is  essential,  however,  to  see 
that  the  plants  never  suffer  from  sudden 
changes  or  from  cold.  Like  tomatoes,  cucum- 
bers require  higher  heat  than  lettuce.  A  day 
temperature  from  70°  to  75°  F.  and  a  night 
temperature  never  lower  than  60°  F.  is  desir- 
able. Unless  conditions  are  favorable  for  the 
entrance  of  insects,  attention  to  pollination  will 
be  necessary.  This  can  be  most  economically 
accomplished  by  placing  a  stand  of  honey  bees 
in  the  house  if  it  be  an  extensive  one.  A  small 
bed  can  be  hand  pollinated.  In  no  event  should 
this  detail  be  neglected.  Well-grown  green- 


58        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

house  cucumbers  usually  command  a  remnuera- 
tive  price,  but  poor  stock  is  never  profitable.* 

*  For  detailed  information  on  the  forcing  and  field  cul- 
tivation of  vegetables,  see  the  writer's  "  Garden  Farming." 


CHAPTER  VII 

FRUIT   GROWING 

THE  APPLE  INDUSTRY  as  at  present 
conducted,  under  scientific  management, 
is  an  extensive  industry  of  a  high  order. 
Unlike  many  of  the  other  crops  returning  a 
liberal  profit,  the  apple  is  not  restricted  to  a 
single  use  or  to  a  limited  season,  two  marked 
advantages  in  its  favor. 

Non-restrictive  season.  The  large  number 
of  good  varieties  now  in  cultivation,  ranging  in 
season  from  very  early  to  late-maturing,  long- 
keeping  sorts,  render  the  apple  in  these  days 
of  cold  storage  a  year-round  fruit.  By  taking 
advantage  of  the  variety  list  and  modern  cold 
storage  facilities  it  is  possible  to  handle  the 
apple  crop  so  as  to  keep  the  market  supplied 
at  all  times  without  glut  and  at  the  same  time 
not  sacrifice  the  product.  This  was  not  possible 
a  few  years  ago. 

Transportation  facilities  were  not  adequate 
for  handling  highly  perishable  products  at  great 
59 


60        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

distances  from  the  market.  Cold  storage  was 
not  available  for  extending  the  market  period 
and  as  a  consequence  all  the  so-called  winter 
apples  were  forced  upon  the  market  in  a  few 
weeks,  causing  great  depression  of  prices  and 
apparent  over  production.  The  period  for  dis- 
tribution was  limited  to  the  time  the  apples 
would  keep  under  more  or  less  indifferent  ware- 
house conditions,  a  period  which  at  best  did 
not  extend  beyond  the  following  March.  Under 
these  conditions  the  apple  business  could  easily 
be  over  done,  the  market  glutted,  and  prices 
depressed.  The  apple  under  these  circum- 
stances was  not  available  from  March  until 
July.  For  one-third  of  the  year  the  market 
was  bare  of  this  most  popular  fruit. 

The  adaptation  of  cold  storage  to  the  needs 
of  this  industry  has  extended  the  period  for  dis- 
tribution to  include  the  three  months  which 
were  before  lost.  The  economic  effect  of 
this  change  in  the  period  of  distribution  on 
the  crop  can  easily  be  imagined.  Not  only  has 
the  market  period  been  modified  and  extended 
by  cold  storage  but  the  losses  incident  to  the 
indifferent  methods  and  conditions  of  the  old 
warehouse  system  have  largely  been  eliminated. 
Storage  losses  are  less,  the  keeping  period  of 
varieties  is  now  well  understood,  and  the  trained 


FRUIT  GROWING  61 

dealer  Knows  how  to  buy  in  order  to  have 
varieties  for  all  seasons. 

The  large  cold  storage  warehouse  to  be 
found  in  all  towns  and  cities  of  any  considerable 
size  makes  it  possible  for  producers  as  well  as 
dealers  to  store  their  stock  at  reasonable  rates. 
This  device  of  the  trade  tends  to  equalize  both 
the  distribution  and  the  sale  of  the  product. 
The  fruit  does  not  all  pass  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  producer  at  harvest  time.  Many  growers 
place  it  either  in  their  own  storage  houses  or 
ship  it  to  the  cities  to  be  stored  in  commercial 
cold  storage  warehouses.  This  tends  to  maintain 
better  prices  at  harvest  and  often  results  in  a 
good  profit  to  the  grower  later  in  the  season. 

Through  the  invention  of  the  gravity  brine 
circulating  system  for  cold  storage  high  class 
refrigeration  is  available  to  every  orchardist 
operating  in  a  territory  where  an  abundant 
supply  of  natural  ice  can  be  harvested  or  where 
manufactured  ice  can  be  had  at  small  cost.  The 
great  advantage  of  cold  storage  lies  in  the 
possibility  of  subjecting  the  fruit  to  a  tempera- 
ture, as  soon  as  it  is  harvested,  which  arrests 
ripening  and  makes  it  possible,  by  maintaining 
a  temperature  low  enough  to  prevent  the  growth 
of  fungi  and  rots,  to  keep  the  fruit  much  longer. 

The  improved  methods  of  handling  the  fruit 


62        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

during  the  growing  season  result  not  only  in 
more  high  grade  fruit  but  fruit  which  will  keep 
longer.  Spraying  for  insects  and  diseases,  when 
properly  done,  produces  a  larger  percentage  of 
perfect  fruits.  Perfect  fruits  keep  better  than 
imperfect  ones  because  rot  and  moulds  cannot 
gain  entrance.  Imperfections,  bruises,  and  in- 
juries of  all  sorts  shorten  the  keeping  period  of 
the  fruit  no  matter  how  perfect  the  system  of 
storage.  To  state  the  matter  tersely,  by  the 
proper  choice  of  varieties  combined  with 
modern  methods  of  culture,  including  spraying, 
and  by  proper  handling  and  storage,  the  apple 
becomes  a  year-round  crop. 

Our  present  knowledge  of  varieties,  soil, 
cultural  requirements,  spraying,  harvesting, 
packing,  and  storage  of  the  apple  has  reduced 
its  production  to  an  exact  science,  and  so  far  as 
the  factors  over  which  man  has  direct  control 
are  concerned  the  industry  is  on  a  certain  basis. 
The  production  of  all  agricultural  crops,  in  the 
open,  involves  several  uncertain  factors  over 
which  man  has  no  control,  such  as  frosts,  winds, 
sunshine,  and  storms,  These  risks  are  greater 
in  certain  localities  than  in  others.  The  greater 
the  risk  the  greater  the  possibility  of  loss.  The 
wise  planter  will  choose  his  location  so  as  to 
avoid  every  possible  uncertainty  and  obtain 


FRUIT   GROWING  63 

every  possible  advantage.  The  destruction  of 
the  crop  by  late  spring  frosts  can  be  guarded 
against  by  the  use  of  the  orchard  heater,  and 
localities  subject  to  frequent  late  frosts  can 
be  utilized  for  fruit  growing,  but  the  cost  of 
such  protection  adds  an  important  item  to  the 
fixed  charges  or  cost  of  production.  Frost  free 
localities  eliminate  this  charge  and  thus  have 
an  advantage. 

Certain  soil  and  climatic  conditions  produce 
modifications  in  size,  shape,  color,  and  quality 
in  apples  which  sooner  or  later  the  discriminat- 
ing buyers  will  recognize.  In  dry  climates  where 
the  trees  are  grown  under  irrigation,  the  skin 
of  the  apple  is  tougher  and  the  colors  more 
highly  developed  than  in  the  humid  climates. 
The  flesh  of  the  fruit,  however,  is  dryer  and 
its  flavor  less  highly  developed  in  the  dry  than 
in  the  humid  regions.  With  such  information 
it  is  possible  for  the  grower  to  so  choose  the 
location  for  his  orchard  as  to  produce  distinct- 
ive fruit. 

The  great  mass  of  American  apple  eaters 
know  but  few  varieties,  and  vendors  have  but 
little  idea  of  the  influence  of  the  location  from 
which  a  variety  comes  upon  its  value.  The 
bulk  of  the  crop  sold  from  the  fruit  stands  is 
sold  on  appearance  alone.  It  has  been  said 


64        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

that  Americans  eat  with  their  eyes,  and  so  far 
as  the  dessert  fruits  are  concerned  this  is  true. 
The  largest  strawberry  and  the  reddest  apple, 
regardless  of  quality  or  variety,  sell  most 
readily.  These  peculiarities  of  the  market 
must  not  be  overlooked  by  the  producer.  They 
are  important  commercial  factors. 

The  age  at  which  apples  come  into  bearing 
varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States.  In  some  of  the  regions  where  the  in- 
dustry is  rapidly  developing  the  trees  come  into 
bearing  at  from  four  to  six  years  of  age. 
Under  these  conditions  it  is  possible  for  one  to 
realize  more  quickly  upon  his  investment  than 
in  regions  where  it  is  necessary  to  wait  eight  or 
even  twelve  years  before  the  trees  yield  a  crop. 
It  is  safe  to  predict  that  in  those  sections  where 
the  environmental  conditions  are  such  as  to 
force  a  plant  into  fruit  early  the  span  of  life 
of  the  plant  will  be  correspondingly  shortened. 
In  fact,  as  a  rule  those  sections  which  produce 
such  early  returns  produce  only  a  moderate  an- 
nual growth  of  wood,  but  an  abundance  of  fruit 
buds  considering  the  size  and  age  of  the  plants. 

Cultivation.  The  use  of  modern  implements 
which  have  been  designed  for  orchard  cultiva- 
tion makes  it  possible  to  maintain  clean  culture 
under  low-headed  trees  by  the  use  of  horse- 


FRUIT   GROWING  65 

power  implements  alone.  A  few  years  ago  this 
would  not  have  been  possible.  The  mainte- 
nance of  proper  cultural  conditions  is  less  ex- 
pensive of  human  effort  nowadays  than  for- 
merly. The  disc  harrow,  the  orchard  culti- 
vator, and  the  light  gang  plow  have  combined 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  labor. 

While  good  cultivation  is  essential,  clean  cul- 
ture is  not  the  sole  aim.  Good  cultivation  con- 
sists not  only  in  stirring  the  soil  to  a  proper 
depth  at  the  right  time  with  implements  suited 
for  the  work,  but  also  in  practicing  a  system  of 
cover  cropping  which  shall  maintain  the  nitro- 
gen and  humus  supply  in  the  soil  so  that  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  amount  of  mineral  ferti- 
lizer, in  the  form  of  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash, a  normal  plant  ration  can  be  maintained 
in  the  soil. 

In  planning  the  orchard  the  contour  of  the 
land  should  be  considered.  If  the  area  is  hilly 
the  tree  rows  should  be  planned  on  contour  lines 
with  a  grade  of  not  more  than  four  inches  in 
one  hundred  feet.  This  will  allow  all  cultiva- 
tion to  be  done  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent 
erosion  and  with  the  least  expenditure  of  en- 
ergy. The  slight  grade  in  the  rows  will  permit 
of  drainage  without  washing,  and  will  permit 
all  cultivation  to  be  performed  with  the  same 


66        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

expenditure  of  energy  required  to  cultivate  level 
land.  The  same  arrangement  that  lightens  the 
burden  of  cultivation  helps  at  spraying  time 
and  at  harvest  time. 

The  indicator  which  may  be  relied  upon  to 
decide  whether  or  not  the  trees  are  receiving 
an  adequate  supply  of  food  is  the  length  of  the 
annual  growth.  If  this  growth  is  six  inches  or 
less  the  tree  is  on  short  rations.  If  it  is  eight 
inches  or  more  the  tre  is  well  nourished,  and  if 
it  is  twelve  inches  or  more  on  trees  in  full  bear- 
ing the  growth  is  excessive,  and  the  system  of 
cultivation  should  be  modified  to  suit  the  re- 
quirements of  the  case.  Too  little  growth  is 
as  much  to  be  avoided  as  too  much;  both  result 
in  crop  failure. 

In  the  Eastern  United  States  too  little 
growth  may  be  expected  on  poor  soils  long  in 
sod.  In  the  Northwest  this  condition  arises 
from  clean  culture  and  an  exhaustion  of  the 
limited  nitrogen  supply.  Many  of  the  areas 
devoted  to  orcharding  in  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington are  of  volcanic  origin.  The  soils  have 
an  abundant  supply  of  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid,  but  a  limited  supply  of  nftrogen.  The  trees 
make  a  fair  growth  during  their  early  life  and 
come  into  bearing  early.  As  fruit  production 
increases  the  growth  of  the  plant  decreases 


FRUIT   GROWING  67 

under  a  system  of  clean  culture  and  irrigation 
with  the  exhaustion  of  the  nitrogen  supply.  The 
remedy  in  these  cases  is  a  leguminous  cover 
crop  turned  under  to  take  the  place  of  clean 
cultivation.  For  the  Northwest  vetch  and  the 
clovers  will  undoubtedly  give  best  results.  In 
the  East  vetch,  crimson  clover,  and  cow  peas 
are  the  great  nitrogen  restorers. 

The  use  of  cover  crops  and  other  fertilizers 
should  be  governed  entirely  by  the  growth  and 
fruitfulness  of  the  tree.  In  some  instances  the 
crops  must  be  employed  to  maintain  growth  and 
production.  In  other  cases  cultivation  and  cover 
cropping  must  give  place  to  grass  in  order  to 
check  the  growth  and  induce  fruitfulness.  At 
this  time  it  is  only  possible  to  call  attention  to 
these  troubles  and  the  means  of  their  control. 
The  success  in  applying  the  remedy  is  the  meas- 
ure of  the  skill  of  the  orchardist. 

Spraying.  No  single  factor  of  orchard 
management  is  of  greater  importance  than 
spraying.  Spraying  has  done  more  to  place 
apple  culture  on  a  safe  basis  than  any  other 
single  discovery  of  modern  times.  The  use  of 
the  spray  is  to  the  orchardist  what  the  use  of 
the  anesthetic  is  to  the  surgeon.  It  makes  it 
safe  and  certain.  In  no  department  of  farm 
practice  has  science  demonstrated  its  value  to  a 


68        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

greater  extent  than  in  the  results  from  spraying. 
It  is  within  the  last  thirty  years  that  all  we  now 
know  and  make  use  of  in  the  control  of  insects 
and  diseases  by  the  use  of  sprays  has  been  found 
out.  The  spray  is  almost  a  panacea  for  all  the 
ills  of  the  fruit  grower. 

The  proper  use  of  modern  insecticides  en- 
ables the  orchardist  to  protect  his  trees  from 
scale  insects  and  his  fruits  from  curculio  and 
moth.  The  fungicides  safeguard  the  leaves  of 
the  tree,  enabling  it  to  carry  on  its  normal  func- 
tions, and  at  the  same  time  protects  the  fruit 
itself  against  rot  and  scab.  The  mixtures  as  well 
as  the  methods  of  applying  them  are  constantly 
being  improved.  It  would  therefore  be  a  waste 
of  effort  to  record  in  this  place  the  methods  and 
means  considered  best  for  controlling  any  par- 
ticular insect  or  disease.  Ask  your  State  Ex- 
periment Station  or  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  at  Washington,  D.  CM  for 
the  latest  information,  otherwise  you  may  be 
working  at  a  disadvantage.  If  one  is  to  insure 
his  crop  at  all  he  wishes  to  do  it  in  the  best  pos- 
sible way — to  do  this  keep  up  with  the  spray 
literature. 

Harvesting.  The  relation  of  the  method  of 
harvesting  and  handling  fruit  to  its  keeping 
qualities  have,  within  recent  years,  come  to  be 


FRUIT   GROWING  69 

well  understood  and  are  gradually  being  put 
into  practice.  The  fact  that  a  perfect  fruit 
keeps  better  than  a  bruised  or  injured  one  has 
been  so  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  transporta- 
tion and  storage  work  conducted  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  that  the  lead- 
ers in  fruit  growing  are  beginning  to  give  this 
care  to  the  handling  of  apples.  So  long  as  the 
skin  of  the  fruit  remains  unbroken  and  the  tem- 
perature of  the  storage  chamber  is  below  the 
temperature  congenial  to  the  growth  of  rots  and 
moulds  the  fruit  will  keep.  Bruised  and  punc- 
tured fruits  present  openings  for  the  entrance 
of  organisms  of  decay,  and  as  soon  as  tem- 
perature conditions  are  favorable  rots  and 
moulds  appear. 

The  fact  that  some  fruits  hold  up  well  on  the 
market  after  being  removed  from  cold  storage, 
while  other  fruit  stored  under  like  conditions 
go  down  quickly  is  to  be  accounted  for  in  the 
harvesting  and  handling.  It  is  to  be  expected 
that  the  most  carefully  handled  and  the  most 
perfect  fruit  will  hold  up  longest  on  the 
market.  The  motto  of  the  grower  should  be 
care, — care  in  choice  of  location;  care  in  the 
choice  of  varieties;  care  in  planting;  care  in 
cultivating;  care  in  harvesting;  and  care  in 
marketing. 


70        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

All  picking  should  be  done  by  hand  and 
with  great  care.  If  picking  sacks  are  used 
great  care  should  be  exercised  in  dumping 
them;  if  baskets  are  used  they  should  be  lined 
with  cloth  to  prevent  bruising;  the  fruit  should 
be  placed  gently  in  the  receptacle,  never 
thrown,  and  when  transferred  to  the  sorting 
table  bruising  and  rough  handling  should  be 
avoided. 

Packing.  During  the  last  decade  a  great 
change  has  taken  place  in  the  methods  of  pre- 
paring apples  for  market.  Great  care  is  ex- 
ercised to  produce  fruit  of  high  grade,  and 
nowadays  great  care  is  taken  to  grade  and  pack 
this  high-grade  fruit  in  an  attractive  manner. 
A  few  years  ago  the  fruit  was  picked  from  the 
tree,  placed  directly  in  barrels,  and  sent  to  the 
market.  Now  the  fruit  is  graded  and  only 
the  best  is  shipped  to  market.  All  injured  and 
undersized  fruit  is  utilized  in  the  manufacture 
of  dried  apples,  cider,  and  vinegar.  The  good 
fruits  are  carefully  graded  and  in  many  local- 
ities the  choice  specimens,  which  comprise  pos- 
sibly twenty  per  cent,  of  the  crop,  are  carefully 
graded  according  to  size,  color,  and  form  and 
packed  into  neat  boxes  holding  one  bushel. 

This  box  grade  has  proven  worthy  of  the 
care  bestowed  upon  it,  for  in  many  cases  the  box 


FRUIT   GROWING  71 

has  sold  for  as  much  as  a  full  barrel  of  un- 
graded stock.  These  fruits  have  placed  ap- 
ples in  the  class  with  high-grade  oranges  in 
the  retail  trade.  Five  cents  each  and  three  for 
ten  cents  is  the  usual  price  for  them.  This  grade 
of  fruit  should  correspond  to  cream  in  the  dairy 
business,  and  like  cream  the  quantity  of  such 
fruit  will  vary  from  five  to  twenty  per  cent  of 
the  total  crop.  A  few  growers  only  will  pro- 
duce box  apples,  as  a  few  dairymen  only  main- 
tain pure  bred  herds.  The  production  of  this 
class  of  fruit  is  the  fine  art  of  fruit  growing. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  fruit  produced  will  con- 
tinue to  be  barrel  stock  and  well  it  may  be  so, 
for  the  great  fruit  consuming  population  can 
never  be  supplied  with  box  stock,  first,  because 
of  the  small  percentage  of  fruit  suitable  for  the 
grade,  and  second,  because  the  fruit  must  be 
supplied  at  less  cost  to  the  consumer. 

Barrel  stock  which  will  keep  as  well,  cook  as 
well,  and  taste  as  well  as  the  box  stock  can  be 
delivered  to  the  consumer  at  much  less  cost. 
In  the  first  place,  barrel  stock  does  not  require 
to  be  so  closely  graded  as  to  size  and  form, 
while  uniformity  of  size  and  regularity  of 
form  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  box  stock. 
Color  values  count  for  less  in  barrel  stock  than 
in  box  fruit.  In  other  words  expert  know!- 


72        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

edge  is  demanded  at  every  point  in  the  prod- 
uction, grading,  and  packing  of  box  apples. 
Such  knowledge  costs  more  and  must  be  taken 
account  of  in  the  selling  price  of  the  product. 
The  production  of  barrel  and  box  grades  of 
apples  may  be  compared  to  the  manufacture 
of  mowing  machines  and  microscopes.  A  dif- 
ferent quality  of  workmanship  is  demanded, 
the  market  for  one  is  limited  and  exacting,  for 
the  other  general  and  less  critical,  but  there 
may  be  quite  as  much  profit  in  one  line  of 
business  as  in  the  other. 

The  ideal  plan  is  to  grade  the  product,  take 
out  the  box  stock,  and  grade  and  pack  it  in 
such  manner  as  to  secure  the  highest  price  for 
the  grade  to  which  it  belongs.  Then  pack  a 
high  grade  and  a  second  barrel  stock  and  con- 
vert everything  else  into  other  commercial 
forms.  More  profit  will  follow  this  practice 
than  will  come  from  eliminating  the  box  grade 
entirely.  The  elimination  of  the  box  stock 
tends  to  make  the  barrel  stock  more  uniform 
and  therefore  more  desirable.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  all  such  products,  however,  there  is  a 
point  beyond  which  the  work  cannot  be  profit- 
ably carried.  The  careful  business  man  will 
seek  to  determine  this  limit  and  keep  well  with- 
in it. 


FRUIT   GROWING  73 

'Uses.  The  apple  lends  itself  to  a  greater 
variety  of  profitable  uses  than  any  other  fruit. 
While  its  greatest  use  is  as  a  dessert  fruit,  im- 
mense quantities  are  utilized  in  the  manufacture 
of  cider,  jellies,  and  for  canning  and  evaporat- 
ing. 

During  recent  years  methods  have  been  per- 
fected for  making  cider  of  extremely  high 
quality  and  for  keeping  it  in  good  condition 
for  a  long  period.* 

Since  the  enactment  of  the  pure  food  laws  and 
the  enforcement  of  the  misbranding  clause  it 
is  possible  to  market  cider  vinegar.  Before  the 
enactment  of  these  laws  pure  fruit  vinegars 
could  not  be  made  and  sold  at  a  profit  and  the 
industry  fell  into  decadence.  Now  that  products 
are  sold  for  what  they  really  are  people  are 
willing  to  pay  a  remunerative  price  for  pure 
cider  vinegar,  and  the  utilization  of  all  but  the 
very  highest  grades  of  fruit  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  cider,  vinegar,  and  dried  apples  has  a 
tendency  to  relieve  the  market  at  harvest 
time  and  maintain  a  better  price  for  barrel  and 
box  stock. 

Between  two  and  three  gallons  of  vinegar 

*See  the  work  of  Gore  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture. 


74        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

can  be  produced  from  a  bushel  of  apples. 
With  vinegar  at  fifteen  cents  per  gallon  and 
three  gallons  per  bushel,  apples  would  bring 
forty-five  cents  per  bushel  or  $1.35  per  bar- 
rel for  the  fruit.  This  means  of  disposing 
of  all  fruit  below  the  barrel  and  box  grade 
should  be  carefully  considered.  In  some  local- 
ities and  under  certain  conditions  it  may  prove 
more  advantageous  to  manufacture  the  lower 
grades  of  fruit  into  jellies  and  dried  stock 
rather  than  into  cider  and  vinegar.  All  these 
means  of  disposing  of  the  lower  grades  of  fruit 
are  open  to  the  producer  and  he  should  care- 
fully determine  which  one  best  suits  his  con- 
ditions. 

Marketing.  Several  methods  of  disposing 
of  the  apple  crop  have  been  evolved  within  the 
last  decade.  The  crop  is  to  a  small  extent  sold 
on  commission  the  same  as  other  semi-perish- 
able products,  but  the  commission  sales  are 
nowadays  a  minor  factor  in  the  apple  business. 
The  American  propensity  for  speculation  has, 
since  the  perfection  of  the  cold  storage  system 
of  handling  apples,  placed  this  commodity 
among  the  regular  brokerage  stock.  While  a 
fraction  of  the  stock  placed  in  storage  by  the 
dealers  is  obtained  in  the  open  market,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  crop  is  purchased  direct  fromu 


FRUIT   GROWING  75 

the  grower,  usually  at  harvest  time  or  before. 
The  crop  may  be  "  bought  on  the  trees  "  at  a 
stipulated  price  per  barrel  as  they  run,  or  they 
may  be  bought  at  a  stated  price  for  each  grade. 
In  some  instances  the  owner  of  the  orchard 
picks  the  fruit  and  furnishes  the  packages,  the 
purchaser  doing  the  packing.  In  other  cases 
the  purchaser  picks,  packs,  and  supplies  his  own 
packages.  All  such  transactions  are  the  result 
of  private  sale. 

In  a  few  sections  the  practice  of  selling  at 
auction  obtains,  the  fruit  being  put  up  and  sold 
to  the  highest  bidder.  A  modification  of  this 
idea  has  been  very  successfully  used  in  some 
localities,  the  fruit  in  the  orchard  being  adver- 
tised for  sale  and  sealed  bids  invited  to  be 
opened  at  a  given  time,  the  crop  to  go  to  the 
highest  bidder.  This  plan  has  worked  with 
satisfaction  and  is  better  in  some  respects  than 
the  public  auction  or  the  private  sales  plan. 

There  is  one  objection  to  all  wholesale  sys- 
tems of  selling  where  the  purchaser  of  the  fruit 
and  not  the  owner  of  the  orchard  harvests  the 
crop.  There  is  liable  to  be  more  injury  to  the 
trees  from  careless  workmen  picking  on  the 
"piece  work  plan."  Their  only  object  is  to 
harvest  as  many  packages  as  possible,  regard- 
less of  consequences.  The  fruit  is  apt  to  be 


76        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

handled  more  roughly  and  its  keeping  quality 
as  a  result  somewhat  impaired,  for  it  is  only 
carefully  handled,  perfect  fruit  which  can  be 
expected  to  keep  even  in  cold  storage  to  the 
full  limit  for  the  variety. 

But  the  most  serious  factor  of  all  is  the  loss 
of  the  trade  standing  of  the  private  brand. 
Every  grower  should  strive  to  make  a  reputa- 
tion in  the  market  for  his  private  mark  or  brand 
of  fruit.  This  should  be  based  not  only  on 
quality  and  size  but  also  on  style  of  packing.  In 
some  States  the  grades  are  determined  by  law 
and  the  private  mark  of  the  grower  or  packer 
is  required  upon  each  package.  If  this  is  the 
case,  the  auction  or  wholesale  plan  of  selling 
works  well,  provided  the  grower  protects  his 
orchard  from  careless  workmen. 

Many  extensive  growers  have  adopted  the 
plan  of  placing  their  crop  in  storage  either 
upon  the  farm  or  in  the  market  and  disposing 
of  it  at  private  sale  from  time  to  time  as  the 
condition  of  the  market  warrants.  In  the  long 
run  this  method  is  undoubtedly  most  profitable 
for  those  so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  avail 
themselves  of  it. 

Still  another  plan  of  marketing  is  through 
co-operation.  The  growers  instead  of  doing 
their  own  grading  and  packing  deliver  their 
fruit  to  a  central  station,  where  it  is  graded, 


FRUIT   GROWING  77 

packed,  and  shipped  or  placed  in  cold  storage 
as  the  judgment  of  the  sales  agent  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  fruit  and  the  market  may  justify. 
This  plan  completely  obliterates  the  individual, 
but  has  the  advantage  of  maintaining  a  high 
grade  and  uniform  pack  upon  which  a  reputa- 
tion for  the  region  can  be  established.  It  also 
has  the  advantage  of  wider  and  more  effective 
distribution,  an  important  matter  in  these  days 
of  immense  production.  Wide  distribution  is 
one  of  the  most  effective  methods  of  steadying 
prices.  Congested  markets  with  consequent  de- 
pression of  prices  are  in  this  way  avoided.  The 
product  is  sold  on  order  rather  than  on  consign- 
ment. 

Consignment  selling,  while  it  must  be  de- 
pended upon  for  early  apples,  is  the  least  satis- 
factory of  all  methods.  Under  present  condi- 
tions the  shipper  has  no  guarantee  and  no  ade- 
quate redress.  Any  man  who  can  rent  quarters, 
publish  prices  current,  and  issue  rubber  stencil 
stamps  may  engage  in  the  commission  business. 
The  producer  stands  to  meet  all  charges  for 
production,  transportation,  and  sale,  and  relies 
upon  the  honesty  and  judgment  of  the  man  at 
the  other  end  to  so  dispose  of  the  product  as 
to  make  a  profit  or  loss. 

What  is  needed  is  a  law  placing  the  commis- 
sion business  under  as  careful  protection  as  that 


78        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

now  required  for  national  banks,  together  with 
a  constant  inspection. 

The  improvement  and  protection  of  the  com- 
mission sales  business  is  of  equal  importance  to 
both  producer  and  consumer.  Unsatisfactory 
returns  to  the  producer  tend  to  discourage  pro- 
duction, lower  the  quality,  and  give  the  dealer 
an  excuse  for  charging  a  high  price,  which 
works  a  hardship  upon  the  consumer  and  tends 
to  curtail  consumption.  Liberal  production,  to- 
gether with  large  consumption  based  on  a  sys- 
tem of  quick  sales  and  reasonable  profits  to 
every  one,  produces  most  satisfactory  economic 
conditions. 

Maintenance  of  Fertility.  The  maintenance 
of  fertility  in  the  orchard  is  as  important  as  it 
is  in  connection  with  any  other  agricultural  crop. 
Upon  some  soils  fertilizers  are  essential  early 
in  the  life  of  the  tree,  while  upon  others  they 
may  not  be  required  until  the  trees  are  brought 
under  the  strain  of  crop  production.  The  length 
of  the  annual  growth  and  the  size  and  color  of 
the  fruit  should  be  taken  into  consideration  to 
determine  the  kind  and  amount  of  fertilizer 
needed.  Short  annual  growth  indicates  lack  of 
nitrogen,  as  does  also  small,  light-colored  foli- 
age which  drops  early  in  the  autumn.  Lack  of 
color  in  the  fruit  may  be  due  to  too  much  nitro- 
gen in  the  soil,  insufficient  sunlight,  a  result  of 


FEU  IT   GROWING  79 

bad  pruning,  or  to  a  lack  of  potash  or  iron  in 
the  soil.  Fertility  is  not  always  a  determining 
factor  of  color  in  fruit — weather  conditions, 
altitude,  and  soil  all  play  a  part  in  determining 
the  intensity  of  the  color  of  a  variety. 

The  maintenance  of  the  fertility  in  the  or- 
chard is  accomplished  more  easily  than  in  the 
culture  of  exacting  farm  crops.  In  general 
agriculture  the  rotation  must  be  so  planned  as 
to  permit  the  use  of  a  soil-enriching  crop  at 
more  or  less  frequent  intervals.  In  the  orchard 
the  trees  are  perennial  and  when  no  other  de- 
mand is  made  upon  the  soil  it  is  a  simple  prob- 
lem to  maintain  an  abundant  supply  of  organic 
matter  and  nitrogen  in  the  soil  by  the  use  of 
appropriate  cover  crops.  Upon  strong  soils 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  only  will  be  required 
in  limited  quantities.  Of  these,  phosphoric  acid 
will  be  required  more  often  than  potash.  The 
nitrogen  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  crimson 
clover,  vetch,  and  common  clover  as  a  winter 
cover,  and  by  the  use  of  Canada  peas,  cow  peas, 
or  clover  as  a  summer  cover.  The  mineral  ele- 
ments must  be  obtained  as  a  commercial  ma- 
nure. Potash  in  the  form  of  sulphate  is  as  a 
rule  more  desirable  in  fruit  growing  than  muri- 
ate, unless  for  some  reason  it  is  desirable  to 
shorten  the  growing  season. 

Phosphoric  acid  can  be  applied  in  fine  ground 


80        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

bone  meal,  floats,  or  as  superphosphate.  Usu- 
ally treated  rock  phosphate  supplies  the  cheap- 
est source  of  phosphoric  acid.  Thomas  slag  is 
also  a  reasonable  source  for  this  ingredient. 
The  iron  carried  in  Thomas  slag  may  upon 
some  soils  low  in  iron  prove  of  advantage  in 
coloring  the  fruit. 

The  problem  of  fertilization  is  a  local  one. 
Each  orchardist  must  determine  the  kind  and 
amount  of  fertilizer  required  by  his  orchard. 
The  soil,  the  variety,  and  the  method  of  man- 
agement will  all  be  found  to  be  factors  in  the 
fertility  problem.  No  general  formula  can  be 
given  to  cover  all  cases. 

Conclusion.  Apple  culture  under  scientific 
management  is  a  highly  remunerative  industry. 
The  yield  is  sometimes  as  high  as  fifteen  barrels 
per  tree.  There  may  be  as  many  as  thirty  or 
forty  adult  trees  to  the  acre  an"3  the  price  of 
fruit  ranges  from  one  dollar  to  four  dollars  per 
barrel  for  the  fruit.  Thirty  trees  per  acre  at 
i  bbl.  per  tree  at  $1.00  per  bbl.  is  qual  to 
$30.00  per  acre.  Thirty  trees  at  15  bbls. 
equals  450  bbls.  at  $3.00  equals  $1,350.00  per 
acre.  These  figures  represent  the  range  of  pos- 
sibility in  apple  growing. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

SMALL  FRUITS 

THE  small  fruits,  like  many  of  the  vege- 
table crops,  lend  themselves  to  extensive 
cultivation  as   well   as  to   combination 
and  interplanting.    The  extensive  cultivation  of 
special  crops  such  as  grapes,  raspberries,  and 
strawberries  is  common  in  some  sections  of  the 
United  States. 

The  grape  is  more  extensively  cultivated 
than  any  other  plant  of  the  small  fruit  group. 
The  climate  of  Eastern  United  States  for  many 
years  discouraged  the  introduction  and  cultiva- 
tion of  the  grape.  It  was  not  until  the  native 
vine  was  found  to  possess  sorts  worthy  of  culti- 
vation that  the  industry  became  established. 
The  phylloxera,  an  insect  not  known  in  Europe, 
but  common  throughout  Eastern  America,  was 
the  cause  of  the  early  failures.  But  it  was  many 
years  before  this  became  known;  in  fact,  it  was 
not  until  the  European  industry  was  in  danger 
that  the  true  cause  of  the  difficulty  was  discov- 
ered. 

81 


82        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

Our  present  knowledge  of  the  habits  and  re- 
quirements of  the  European  vine  has  made  it 
possible  to  establish  and  maintain  an  important 
grape  industry  upon  the  Pacific  coast,  while 
upon  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  where  all  early 
attempts  to  introduce  and  establish  the  Euro- 
pean sorts  proved  failures,  we  have  an  impor- 
tant commercial  grape  industry  based  upon 
varieties  derived  from  the  native  wild  sorts. 

Because  of  the  high  development  of  the  art 
of  viticulture  grape  growing  should  be  recorded 
among  the  intensive  industries,  but  unfortu- 
nately it  is  not  as  remunerative  as  it  was  a 
quarter  century  ago  or  as  profitable  as  many 
other  branches  of  small  fruit  culture. 

The  Eastern  industry  is  worthy  of  special 
mention  because  it  is  based  upon  a  native  plant. 
It  has  attained  a  high  development  and  was  at 
one  time  very  remunerative.  The  chief  income 
from  the  industry  has  always  been  from  the 
sale  of  dessert  grapes,  although  excellent  wines 
are  procured  from  this  fruit.  During  late 
years  the  unfermented  grape  juice  industry  has 
been  developed  and  has  proved  a  valuable  asset 
to  the  industry. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  grape  industry  is 
based  on  the  European  vine.  At  first  the  prod- 
uct was  almost  exclusively  converted  into  wine 


SMALL   FRUITS  83 

and  raisins,  but  during  the  last  few  years  more 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  production  of 
table  grapes.  This  has  been  possible  only  since 
the  introduction  of  the  refrigerator  transporta- 
tion service. 

The  grape  industry  is  an  exceedingly  highly- 
developed  industry  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
art  of  its  culture.  No  fruit  has  received  more 
critical  scientific  study.  The  difficulties  arising 
from  the  introduction  of  the  phyloxera  into  Eu- 
rope gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  entomology.  It  was  through  the  study 
of  the  diseases  of  the  vine  that  Bordeaux  Mix- 
ture was  discovered.  This  discovery  alone  has 
been  worth  millions  to  the  fruit  interests  of 
the  world. 

The  grape  industry  was  the  first  to  enlist  the 
services  of  trained  scientists  in  solving  its  cul- 
tural problems.  A  greater  share  of  our  present 
knowledge  regarding  the  control  of  insect  pests 
and  fungus  diseases  is  due  to  researches  called 
into  requisition  in  connection  with  the  preser- 
vation of  the  viticultural  interests  of  Europe 
and  America. 

From  a  horticultural  standpoint  no  other 
plant  is  more  interesting  than  the  vine.  It  lends 
itself  to  a  great  variety  of  uses,  to  a  wide  di- 
versity of  soils  and  climatic  conditions.  The 


84        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

methods  of  pruning  and  training  the  vine  are 
extremely  variable  and  form  one  of  the  horti- 
cultural fine  arts.  The  books  on  grape  culture 
and  training  will  be  found  of  as  great  interest 
as  the  treatises  on  espalier  training,  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  establishment  of  the  grape  indus- 
try in  Eastern  United  States  is  horticultural 
tragedy. 

Strawberries  and  Raspberries.  As  inten- 
sive industries,  the  cultivation  of  both  straw- 
berries and  raspberries  are  more  remunerative 
than  the  culture  of  the  vine,  although  neither 
is  as  highly^  developed.  The  strawberry  is 
not  expensive  to  establish  or  to  maintain,  and 
when  well  grown  and  handled  is  highly  remun- 
erative, and  where  sufficient  labor  to  handle  the 
crop  is  available  it  lends  itself  to  extensive  cul- 
tivation. 

The  strawberry  is  exceedingly  cosmopolitan. 
There  are  varieties  adapted  to  every  portion  of 
the  United  States  and  since  it  gives  a  quick  re- 
turn is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  the  small 
fruits.  Yields  of  six  thousand  quarts  per  acre 
have  been  produced  under  favorable  conditions, 
and  crops  of  three  to  four  thousand  quarts  are 
not  uncommon. 

This  fruit  lends  itself  to  intercropping  and  to 
double  cropping  better  than  any  other  fruit 


SMALL   FRUITS  85 

crop.  One  of  the  most  intensive  fruit  enter- 
prises in  Eastern  United  States  is  based  on  a 
combination  of  grapes  interplanted  with  cur- 
rants and  strawberries.  Under  favorable  con- 
ditions such  combinations  return  as  much  as 
$1,000.00  per  acre  gross.  Such  combination 
plantings  require  the  highest  skill  on  the  part  of 
the  grower  to  return  satisfactory  results.  It  is 
easier  to  grow  a  single  crop  on  an  area  than  a 
combination.  The  return  from  such  intensive 
enterprises  is  always  a  measure  of  the  skill  of 
the  grower. 

There  is  no  fruit  crop  that  so  quickly  and 
lavishly  rewards  intelligent  cultivation  and  han- 
dling. The  yield  fluctuates  between  wide  mar- 
gins. The  price  is  also  determined  by  the  sea- 
son, the  sort,  and  the  skill  of  the  grower. 
Grading  and  attractive  packing  pay  as  high  a 
reward  with  strawberries  as  with  any  other  fruit 
crop.  Strawberries  are  sold  largely  upon  size 
and  color.  The  selection  of  sorts  possessing 
both  size  and  color  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
in  the  success  of  this  industry. 

Black  and  red  raspberries  are  both  crops 
capable  of  producing  highly  satisfactory  re- 
turns. In  localities  where  fruit  is  scarce  and 
where  the  red  raspberry  thrives  well,  as  in  por- 
tions of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  the  crop  is 


86        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

highly  profitable.  It  is  also  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  the  small  fruit  plantation  for  a  local 
trade.  As  a  rule  it  is  not  profitable  to  ship 
this  fruit  more  than  a  very  few  miles.  When 
prepared  for  market  it  should  never  be  han- 
dled in  larger  than  pint  receptacles.  Quart 
boxes  are  too  large  for  so  soft  a  fruit.  The 
red  raspberry  comes  into  bearing  early  and 
when  well  cared  for  on  strong  soil  stands  many 
years,  thus  making  it  a  most  satisfactory  plant 
both  for  market  and  for  the  home  fruit  garden. 
The  chief  expense  in  handling  the  crop  is  the 
cost  of  picking. 

Black  raspberries,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not 
restricted  to  use  as  a  dessert  fruit  as  is  the  red 
berry.  Black  caps  are  grown  extensively  in 
some  localities  for  drying.  The  invention  of  a 
mechanical  means  of  harvesting  the  crop,  to- 
gether with  the  use  of  the  modern  evaporator, 
has  made  it  possible  to  grow  this  crop  on  an 
extensive  scale.  Some  growers  in  western  New 
York  have  as  many  as  eighty  acres  devoted  to 
the  industry.  The  return  ranges  from  $50  to 
$200  per  acre. 

This  crop  fits  well  into  a  fruit  enterprise 
involving  strawberries,  black  raspberries  for 
evaporation,  peaches,  and  apples.  Fortunately 
nature  has  provided  a  number  of  sections  in 


SMALL   FRUITS  87 

northeastern  United  States  where  this  combina- 
tion of  fruits  can  be  successfully  produced.  As 
a  rule  it  is  not  wise  to  plant  these  crops  in  com- 
bination. It  is  more  satisfactory  to  handle  them 
separately  if  land  area  is  available  and  is  not 
too  expensive.  The  crops  can  be  interplanted 
and  successfully  and  profitably  handled,  but  the 
average  grower  will  succeed  best  by  planting 
each  sort  on  a  separate  area  and  treating  it  as 
a  distinct  crop.  These  crops  follow  one  another 
in  successions  so  as  to  provide  almost  continu- 
ous employment  the  season  through. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   CITRUS   INDUSTRY 

THE  citrus  industry  of  the  United  States, 
which  is  chiefly  made  up  of  the  cultiva- 
tion of  oranges,  lemons,  and  pomelos 
(grapefruit),  is  one  of  the  most  highly  organ- 
ized agricultural  industries  of  the  world.  Geo- 
graphically this  industry  is  confined  to  the 
southern  and  southwestern  portions  of  the 
United  States,  in  fact  to  those  portions  of  our 
country  possessing  a  subtropical  climate.  The 
two  regions  so  far  developed  may  for  conven- 
ience be  spoken  of  as  the  Florida  and  the  Cali- 
fornia areas.  In  point  of  age  the  Florida  region 
is  older,  but  measured  by  the  commercial  out- 
put the  California  industry  is  much  greater. 

While  the  citrus  industry  is  highly  organized, 
it  is  also  a  specialized  industry,  and  being  a  spe- 
cialized industry  it  is  necessarily  an  intensive 
industry.  The  gross  return  per  unit  of  area 
covered  by  oranges  or  lemons  is  equaled  by 
but  few  crops.  The  lands  occupied  are  expen- 
sive. The  fixed  charges  in  the  form  of  irriga- 


THE    CITRUS   INDUSTRY      89 

tion,  cultivation,  and  marketing  are  large  items 
of  expense.  The  trees  are  planted  close,  come 
into  bearing  at  an  early  age,  and  soon  pay  ex- 
penses when  carefully  handled,  turning  a  profit 
at  from  five  to  six  years  from  planting.  A 
good  grove  in  full  bearing  is  not  only  a  most 
beautiful  sight,  but  it  is  highly  profitable  unless, 
perchance,  it  is  overcapitalized  or  poorly  man- 
aged. With  these  crops,  as  with  all  others, 
overcapitalization,  bad  location  and  manage- 
ment all  lead  to  the  same  destination.  But 
under  the  best  of  management  there  are  apt  to 
be,  from  time  to  time,  severe  losses  from  cold. 
In  fact,  severe  freezes  have  been  the  cause  of 
the  greatest  disasters  known  in  this  industry. 
The  first  great  insurance  to  the  success  of  the 
industry  is  a  frost  free  location.  The  second 
is  a  suitable  variety,  and  the  third  good  mar- 
keting facilities. 

Location.  With  all  highly  sensitive  fruits 
the  question  of  suitable  location  is  a  most  im- 
portant one.  Much  can  be  done  to  remedy  a 
bad  bargain  in  location  by  the  use  of  smudges, 
smokes,  and  heaters,  and  while  these  means  of 
protection  should  be  borne  in  mind  as  emer- 
gency measures  they  should  not  be  a  fixed  an- 
nual maintenance  charge,  but  should,  on  the 
contrary,  be  found  among  the  insurance  items. 


90        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

In  other  words,  do  not  locate  where  the  annual 
use  of  fire  pots  is  necessary  for  the  protection 
of  the  crop.  The  use  of  such  devices  should  be 
the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  All  other  fac- 
tors, such  as  soil,  rainfall  or  irrigation  facilities, 
distance  to  the  railroad,  and  packing  house, 
should  be  carefully  studied,  as  should  also  the 
labor  problem. 

Variety.  No  fruit  plant  is  more  profoundly 
influenced  by  its  environment  than  the  orange. 
Varieties  are  exceedingly  exacting  regarding 
their  location.  Some  that  do  not  thrive  or  bear 
well  in  the  Florida  section  are  the  most  valu- 
able commercial  sorts  in  the  California  area. 
But  varietal  preferences  are  not  the  only  fac- 
tors in  this  environment  problem.  Sorts  that 
thrive  well  in  both  Florida  and  California  show 
marked  contrasts  in  the  two  sections.  One  of 
the  most  striking  differences  of  this  nature  is 
to  be  noted  in  the  thickness  of  the  rind  of  the 
same  sort  in  Florida  and  California.  There 
is,  however,  a  marked  difference  between  vari- 
eties, and  each  locality  possesses  sorts  of  spe- 
cial value  well  suited  to  its  conditions. 

Marketing.  No  industry  has  ever  responded 
in  such  a  magic  manner  to  "  scientific  methods  " 
as  has  the  citrus  industry.  The  work  of  the 
California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange  has  solved 


THE   CITRUS   INDUSTRY      91 

the  problem  of  distribution  and  marketing  and 
the  United  States  Government  has  solved  the 
problem  of  harvesting  and  transportation. 
Both  problems  are  handled  in  a  highly  efficient 
and  scientific  manner. 

The  growers  acting  as  a  unit  through  the 
Fruit  Growers'  Exchange  were  able  to  stand- 
ardize their  product  by  uniform  methods  in 
grading  and  packing.  The  individual  with  a 
few  boxes  of  fruit,  were  it  not  for  the  citrus 
selling  organizations,  would  not  be  able  to  dis- 
pose of  his  product  except  to  local  jobbers, 
who  would  oftentimes  be  compelled  to  regrade 
and  repack  the  fruit.  The  association  packing 
house  plan  does  away  with  all  this  and  makes 
it  possible  for  those  with  less  than  carload  lots 
to  pool  their  interests  with  others  and  secure 
the  benefits  of  standard  grades  and  packs  as 
well  as  shipment  in  carload  lots.  Organiza- 
tion could  accomplish  this  unaided,  but  it  could 
not  stop  the  loss  from  decay  in  transit,  and  it 
was  at  this  point  that  scientific  management 
under1  the  direction  of  a  trained  horticulturist 
entered  the  field,  determined  the  causes  leading 
to  the  losses  in  transit,  and  by  applying  simple 
and  easy  methods  practically  eliminated  them. 
An  interesting  feature  of  this  achievement  was 
that  the  processes  of  handling  were  simplified 


92        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

and  cheapened  at  the  same  time  that  the  losses 
from  rot  were  overcome.  The  outcome  of  the 
matter  is  that  the  orchard  and  packing  house 
practices  have  been  improved,  with  the  result 
that  these  operations  now  cost  less  than  for- 
merly; the  losses  in  transit  have  been  elimi- 
nated, and  the  net  profits  to  the  industry  in- 
creased by  the  sum  total  of  these  savings. 

An  additional  safeguard  is  being  investi- 
gated. It  is  the  "idea  of  promptly  and  rapidly 
cooling  the  fruit  to  the  temperature  to  be  main- 
tained in  the  refrigerator  car  before  it  starts 
on  its  long  journey  across  the  continent,  instead 
of  as  formerly  depending  upon  the  ice  in  the 
car  to  serve  to  supply  refrigeration  both  to 
reduce  the  initial  temperature  of  the  fruit  and 
to  keep  it  cool  regardless  of  the  outside  tem- 
perature through  which  the  car  must  pass  in 
its  journey  to  a  distant  market. 

Precooling,  as  this  process  is  called,  takes 
the  fruit  from  the  packing  house  and  quickly 
reduces  the  temperature  to  a  point  at  which  the 
ripening  processes  and  the  activities  of  the  rots 
and  moulds,  which  are  the  chief  causes  of  loss 
in  stored  fruit  as  well  as  fruit  in  transit,  are 
arrested.  The  plan  of  shipping  under  ice  does 
not  demand  fruit  to  be  at  this  low  temperature 
when  loaded,  but  takes  the  fruit  direct  from  the 


THE   CITRUS   INDUSTRY     93 

packing  house  and  depends  upon  time  in  transit 
and  re-icing  to  reduce  the  fruit  and  maintain  it 
at  a  safe  temperature.  The  heavy  losses  sus- 
tained under  this  plan,  amounting  in  some 
cases  to  thirty  per  cent.,  attest  the  inadequacy 
of  the  system.  The  insulation  and  refrigera- 
tion of  the  car  should  be  required  to  do  only 
one  act — maintain  a  safe  temperature — and 
not  be  required  to  develop  as  well  as  maintain 
that  temperature. 

Normal  ice  temperatures  are  not  rigorous 
enough  to  rapidly  drive  the  heat  out  of  a  car- 
load of  fruit  so  that  a  safe  temperature  can 
be  developed  before  injury  has  actually  taken 
place  from  moulds  and  rots.  The  mass  of  the 
load  and  the  size  of  the  unit  packages  impose 
too  great  a  burden  upon  the  ice  and  insulation 
of  the  car  to  secure  satisfactory  results.  The 
car,  when  well  built  and  fully  iced,  will  carry  a 
precooled  load  safely  across  the  continent,  but 
it  cannot  receive  a  hot  load,  cool  it,  and  safely 
transport  it.  Preceding  is  the  factor  which 
guarantees  the  work  of  the  refrigerator  car  in 
the  handling  of  highly  perishable  products.  It 
is  such  safeguards  that  place  industries  in  the 
intensive  class. 

Lemon  Curing.  The  art  of  curing  lemons 
was  for  many  years  attended  by  heavy  losses 


94        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

and  a  product  of  widely  varying  quality. 
Through  careful  studies  of  the  field  handling 
of  the  crop  the  causes  of  decay  were  located 
and  can  be  almost  entirely  eliminated  through 
careful  methods  of  handling.  The  variable 
product  of  the  curing  house  is  no  longer  neces- 
sary. The  conditions  essential  for  the  proper 
curing  of  the  lemon  have  been  determined  and 
by  carefully  heeding  these  principles  a  uniform, 
high-grade  product  can  be  turned  out,  provided 
good  stock  is  furnished  in  the  beginning.  The 
results  which  have  been  secured  to  these  indus- 
tries by  scientific  investigation  are  among  the 
most  striking  economic  achievements  of  recent 
years.  The  losses  which  were  sustained  by 
these  industries  before  the  investigations  were 
undertaken  removed  almost  completely  the  pos- 
sibility of  a  profit.  The  reduction  of  the  losses 
has  insured  profits  proportionately. 


CHAPTER   X 

PLANT  BREEDING  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  INTENSIVE 
AGRICULTURE 

INTENSIVE  agriculture  is  not  the  produc- 
tion of  special  crops,  the  cultivation  of 
which  is  intensive.  It  is  the  development 
of  a  system  of  farming  in  which  the  various 
factors  are  so  adjusted  as  to  make  a  highly 
organized  and  at  the  same  time  specialized 
aggregate  or  unit.  Nevertheless,  plant  breed- 
ing may  play  an  important  part  in  the  efficiency 
of  the  aggregate.  The  correct  adjustment  of 
satisfactory  units  may  not  result  in  the  desired 
end  because  of  the  inefficiency  of  the  units.  To 
make  an  effective  aggregate  the  units  them- 
selves must  be  of  a  high  character. 

A  dairy  farm  may  fail  because  the  individ- 
uals in  the  herd  are  not  efficient.  The  cropping 
system  may  be  well  suited  to  the  soil  and  cli- 
mate and  to  the  need  of  the  dairy  herd.  The 
housing  of  both  stock  and  provender  may  be 
of  a  desirable  character  and  the  marketing  of 
the  product  may  be  well  handled,  but  with  un- 
95 


96        INTENSIVE   FARMING 

profitable  animals  the  whole  enterprise  is  de- 
feated. The  remedy  in  this  case  is  found  in 
the  readjustment  of  one  factor — the  stock. 
This  can  be  accomplished  gradually  by  build- 
ing up  the  herd  or  by  the  sale  of  the  undesirable 
individuals  and  the  purchase  of  satisfactory 
ones. 

If  the  aggregate  is  based  on  a  cash  return 
from  some  vegetable  crop,  such  as  potatoes, 
the  profits  can  usually  be  greatly  increased  by  a 
proper  rotation  and  good  cultivation,  but  fre- 
quently most  of  all  by  attention  to  the  selection 
and  development  of  highly  productive  and  de- 
sirable types.  A  little  hill  selection  work  will 
suffice  to  convince  one  of  the  value  of  improved 
stock.  A  casual  inspection  of  the  product  of 
a  series  of  hills  of  potatoes  carefully  dug  so  as 
to  keep  the  product  of  each  hill  separate  will  at 
once  bring  out  the  fact  that  in  some  hills  there 
are  only  two  or  three  tubers,  in  others  one 
large  and  three  or  four  small  tubers,  in  others 
three  or  four  large  and  three  or  four  small 
tubers,  and  still  others  four  or  five  large  an3 
but  few  small  tubers. 

If  all  types  of  hills  are  present  in  about  equal 
numbers  the  yield  of  the  field  is  a  mean  be- 
tween the  high  and  low  yielding  hills.  If  the 
low  yielding  hills  are  more  abundant  their  pres- 


PLANT   BREEDING  97 

ence  is  indicated  in  the  yield.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  are  seventy  or  eighty  per  cent,  of 
the  hills  producing  a  high  yield,  the  return 
from  the  area  will  be  correspondingly  in- 
creased. Tests  have  demonstrated  that  a  strain 
of  potatoes  can  be  built  up  and  maintained, 
seventy  to  eighty  per  cent,  of  which  will  be 
made  up  of  productive  hills,  with  the  result 
that  the  yield  is  correspondingly  increased. 

By  proper  selection  it  will  be  possible  under 
good  cultivation  to  double  the  usual  yield  of 
any  ordinary  strain  of  potatoes  in  two  or  three 
years,  and  this  without  materially  increasing 
the  cost  of  production.  There  is  probably  no 
extensively  tilled  crop  that  responds  so  readily 
to  the  hand  of  the  cultivator  as  the  potato. 

In  order  to  bring  about  such  improvement  it 
is  necessary  to  plant  the  seed  in  such  a  way  as 
to  get  an  indication  of  the  character  of  the 
product  each  tuber  will  produce.  Start  by  cut- 
ting each  tuber  into  four  pieces,  cutting  from 
end  to  end  so  as  to  split  the  terminal  bud. 
Plant  the  four  pieces  one  after  another  in  sep- 
arate but  adjacent  hills.  There  will  then  be 
four  hills  from  one  tuber;  four  hills  from  an- 
other, and  so  on  down  the  row.  At  harvest 
time  the  product  of  the  four  hills  from  any 
given  tuber  can  be  thrown  together,  and  an 


98        INTENSIVE  FARMING 

inspection  of  the  piles  as  to  number,  size,  and 
conformation  of  the  tubers  will  quickly  deter- 
mine those  best  suited  for  further  observation. 
From  each  of  the  piles  considered  desirable 
for  further  test  select  ten  tubers  and  plant 
them  so  as  to  make  forty  hills  each  the  follow- 
ing season,  taking  care  not  to  mix  the  tubers 
from  the  various  piles.  The  harvest  of  the 
forty  hills  from  each  lot  will  again  indicate 
those  best  suited  for  continuance. 

The  one  lot  of  forty  hills  showing  the  great- 
est yield  of  tubers  of  the  desired  type  should 
He  made  the  basis  of  the  next  season's  seed 
patch,  and  should  be  planted  on  one  side  of 
the  field  so  as  to  be  harvested  separately  the 
following  autumn.  By  following  this  plan  from 
year  to  year,  the  shape,  size,  number  of  tubers 
to  the  hill,  and  the  aggregate  yield  can  be  pro- 
foundly and  profitably  modified.  The  efficiency 
of  the  aggregate  in  which  such  high-efficiency 
strains  enter  cannot  but  be  more  satisfactory 
and  profitable  than  those  in  which  low-grade 
strains  are  used.  All  plants  increased  from 
seed  or  from  vegetative  parts  can  be  made 
more  profitable  and  more  desirable  by  such 
simple  methods.  Many  of  the  uncertainties 
can  be  overcome  by  care  in  handling  the  seed. 

With  annual  crops  such  as  cabbage,  lettuce, 


PLANT   BREEDING  99 

onions,  etc.,  the  seed  supply  is  well  purchased 
one  year  in  advance  so  that  it  may  be  tested 
in  a  small  way  the  year  before  it  is  planted 
for  crop  returns.  If  it  is  not  true  to  type  one 
at  least  has  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  it  be- 
fore the  whole  crop  comes  on.  The  best  plan 
is,  however,  to  grow  one's  own  seed  whenever 
possible  from  carefully  selected  stock  plants.  In 
that  way  plant  breeding  can  be  made  to  contrib- 
ute in  a  very  practical  way  to  intensive  farming. 

The  insurance  provided  by  special  devices, 
such  as  hotbeds,  cold  frames,  greenhouses,  and 
irrigation,  avails  the  grower  little  unless  the 
plants  he  grows  are  especially  adapted  to  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  intended. 

Plant*  for  special  purposes  have  not  up  to 
the  present  time  been  developed  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  perfection.  It  is  only  among  the  mar- 
ket gardeners  and  florists  that  plants  for  special 
purposes  are  found. 

Gardeners  have  varieties  of  lettuce,  cucum- 
bers, and  tomatoes  which  have  been  developed 
to  meet  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  artificial 
environment  of  the  greenhouse  and  the  trade 
which  supports  the  industry.  These  crops  do 
not  thrive  well  in  the  open,  but  are  par  excel- 
lence for  greenhouse  conditions.  The  Grand 
Rapids  forcing  lettuce  is  a  notable  example  of 


100      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

a  greenhouse  product  which  has  been  developed 
for  a  special  purpose  and  which  is  not  well 
suited  for  outdoor  conditions. 

The  most  noteworthy  examples  of  special 
purpose  varieties  are  to  be  found  among  the 
cucumbers,  melons,  and  tomatoes  which  have 
been  developed  by  English  and  European  gar- 
deners. The  great  length  of  the  English  forc- 
ing cucumbers,  the  superior  texture  and  flavor 
of  the  forcing  melons  and  the  fruitfulness  and 
mildness  of  flavor  of  the  forcing  tomatoes  are 
striking  characteristics.  As  a  further  proof  of 
their  distinctive  characters  none  of  these  sorts 
are  as  valuable  when  grown  in  the  open  as  the 
ordinary  field  sorts. 

High  Protein  Corn.  The  work  of  Dr.  Hop- 
kins at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  clearly 
demonstrates  the  possibility  of  developing  ce- 
reals with!  distinctive  qualities.  The  protein 
content  of  corn  has  been  decidedly  increased 
and  correlations  have  been  established  which 
make  it  possible  to  determine  by  observation 
the  kernels  which  possess  more  than  the  nor- 
mal protein  content. 

The  development  of  high  sugar  content  in 
the  sugar  beet  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  abil- 
ity of  breeders  to  develop  and  establish  special 
qualities  in  plants.  The  beet  normally  contains 


PLANT   BREEDING          101 

about  twelve  per  cent,  of  sugar,  but  the  best 
strains  of  commercial  beets  contain  as  high  as 
fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  sugar,  with  a  high 
percentage  purity. 

These  illustrations  are  only  a  few  of  the 
many  that  might  be  mentioned,  such  as  the  va- 
rious forms  of  garden  peas;  the  great  difference 
between  the  climbing  and  bush  types  of  lima 
beans;  the  various  forms  of  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, and  brussels  sprouts,  all  of  which  have 
been  produced  from  a  common  parent. 

The  examples  first  mentioned  are  most  inter- 
esting because  the  results  have  been  brought 
about  by  efforts  of  men  well  known  to  present 
day  workers.  The  great  mass  of  the  forms 
that  have  been  preserved  and  are  now  included 
in  the  trade  lists  have  appeared  as  sports  or 
mutations,  and  have  been  preserved  because  of 
their  distinctive  characters. 

During  recent  years  many  florists  have  de- 
voted a  portion  of  their  thoughts  and  ef- 
fort to  the  improvement  of  the  plants  with 
which  they  were  working,  and  as  a  result  many 
new  and  valuable  varieties  have  been  brought 
out.  For  a  number  of  years  Mr.  Arthur  Cowie 
has  given  special  attention  to  the  development 
and  establishment  of  new  forms  of  gladiolus. 
The  results  of  his  work  are  not  measured 


102      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

merely  by  the  number  of  varieties  he  has  pro- 
duced, but  they  have  been  of  such  excellence  as 
to  make  the  work  highly  remunerative. 

Mr.  Ward's  efforts  in  the  breeding  of  car- 
nations have  furnished  the  trade  with  a  number 
of  very  excellent  sorts  which  when  introduced 
by  the  originator  returned  a  handsome  com- 
pensation. 

A  single  illustration  will  suffice  to  substan- 
tiate this  point.  In  the  issue  of  the  American 
Florist  for  January  27th,  1906,  the  following 
item  is  recorded: 


"C.  W.  Ward,  of  the  Cottage  Gardens,  Queens,  N.  Y., 
sold  Carnation  Rachel  Marie  Thompson  to  the  J.  D. 
Thompson  Carnation  Company,  Joliet,  111.,  January  15,  for 
$10,000,  this  sum  to  be  paid  when  the  purchaser  has  real- 
ized same  on  sales.  It  will  be  remembered  that  this  va- 
riety, which  is  in  the  light  pink  class,  scaled  90  points  at 
the  Chicago  show  last  fall  and  was  awarded  the  sweep- 
stakes prize.  It  won  the  same  prize  at  the  Kansas  City 
show." 


Beside  developing  sorts  Mr.  Ward  has  made 
a  record  of  the  work  which  he  did  in  a  real  con- 
tribution to  the  literature  of  the  carnation. 

The  introduction  and  popularization  of  the 
American  Beauty  rose  was  financially  profitable 
to  Mr.  Henry  K.  Field,  and  the  Richmond,  al- 
though a  comparatively  new  sort,  has  not  only 
made  a  lasting  name  for  Mr.  E.  G.  Hill,  its 

y 


PLANT   BREEDING          103 

originator  and  introducer  but  has  netted  him  a 
handsome  profit. 

Not  all  plant  breeders  have,  however,  re- 
ceived the  pecuniary  reward  their  achievements 
deserve.  Peter  Gideon,  whose  name  will  al- 
ways be  associated  with  the  real  progress  of 
Northwestern  fruit  growing,  never  received 
commensurate  reward  for  his  work,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  Mr.  T.  V.  Munson,  who 
has  done  more  for  Southwestern  grape  grow- 
ing than  any  other  American.  Mr.  Munson 
carried  on  very  extensive  breeding  work  for 
many  years,  and  thanks  to  his  foresight  and  en- 
ergy his  results  are  preserved  to  posterity  in  the 
varieties  he  has  developed  and  in  the  record  of 
how  they  were  produced.  Fortunately  for  hor- 
ticultural science,  Mr.  Munson  was  a  gentle- 
man of  wealth  who  has  made  plant  breeding  his 
pleasure  for  many  years. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  sketch  the  work 
and  results  of  all  who  have  made  lasting  con- 
tributions to  horticulture,  but  the  list  is  too  long 
to  be  considered  in  this  chapter.  A  few  such 
names  as  the  Downings,  Prince,  Bull,  Bartram, 
Forsyth,  Henderson,  Barry,  Livingston,  Bai- 
ley, Tracy,  and  others  are  too  well  known  to 
require  special  mention.  There  are  a  host  of 
equally  deserving  workers  whose  names  will 


104      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

never  be  known,  but  their  work  gives  both 
pleasure  and  profit  to  others  as  well  as  to  them- 
selves. 

The  pecuniary  reward  is  not  the  only  return 
from  effort  expended  in  plant  breeding.  The 
pleasure  that  comes  from  successful  accomplish- 
ment in  this  field  is  in  direct  proportion  to  one's 
love  of  plants.  Plant  breeding  carries  enough 
of  the  element  of  chance  to  place  it  almost 
within  the  list  of  questionable  occupations  or 
diversions.  Once  one  becomes  interested  it  is 
as  intoxicating  as  a  game  of  chance,  but  for 
those  who  learn  the  laws  and  rules  of  the  game 
the 'play  becomes  a  scientific  achievement. 

Among  the  master  minds  that  started  the 
thoughts  that  evolved  into  the  theories  out  of 
which  our  modern  science  of  plant  breeding  has 
developed  were  Chas.  Darwin,  Herbert  Spen- 
cer, Alfred  Russel  Wallace,  and  Thos.  Andrew 
Knight  in  England,  and  Mendel,  Van  Mons, 
Nileson,  Tschermak,  and  the  Vilmorins  on  the 
continent,  and  Sturtevant,  Cape,  Saunders,  Bai- 
ley, and  others  in  America.  No  single  mind 
gave  a  complete  solution  for  the  problem,  but 
all  have  made  contributions  of  inestimable 
value. 


CHAPTER   XI 

SEED  GROWING 

THE  growing  of  special  crop  seeds  offers 
illustrations  of  some  of  the  most  inten- 
sive types  of  special  crop  development. 
The  seeds  of  some  flowers  and  vegetables  are 
very  valuable.  The  skill  required  in  their  pro- 
duction is  difficult  to  acquire  and  is  possessed 
by  but  few.  But  those  who  possess  the  skill  to 
produce  these  products  receive  handsome  remu- 
neration for  the  product  when  measured  in 
terms  of  weight  or  land  area,  although  the  re- 
turn is  not  always  so  satisfactory  when  meas- 
ured in  terms  of  man  hours. 

Flower  Seed.  An  interesting  instance  of  the 
apparent  large  return  from  highly  specialized 
industries  is  afforded  by  the  work  of  an  expert 
grower  of  petunia  seed.  This  grower  through 
his  independent  effort  worked  out  the  laws  of 
Mendelian  inheritance  without  knowing  it  and 
successfully  applied  them  in  the  commercial  pro- 
duction of  petunia  seed.  He  produces  the  finest 
double  petunia  seed  grown  in  the  world.  The 
methods  he  employs  are  based  on  a  knowledge 
105 


106      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

of  the  behavior  of  the  first  generation  hybrid 
combined  with  carefully  worked  out  laws  of  in- 
heritance. By  taking  advantage  of  the  con- 
stancy of  the  first  generation  hybrid  to  perpetu- 
ate certain  form  and  color  characters  which 
have  been  determined  to  be  dominant,  this  gen- 
tleman is  able  to  produce  seed  superior  to  that 
grown  by  anyone  else. 

This  success  in  scientific  breeding  is  equally 
a  success  from  a  financial  standpoint,  for  this 
petunia  seed  sells  readily  at  $100  per  ounce,  the 
highest  priced  commercial  seed  in  the  world. 
An  ounce  of  seed  can  be  produced  on  i-ioo  of 
an  acre,  or  at  the  rate  of  $10,000  per  acre. 
This,  like  many  other  industries,  looks  good  on 
paper  and  is  in  reality  a  good  and  profitable  in- 
dustry. The  "  fly  in  the  ointment  "  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  a  great  amount  of  the  most  care- 
ful and  painstaking  effort  is  required  in  this 
work  and  as  the  season  is  limited  and  man's 
abilities  are  restricted,  a  few  ounces  (6  to  10) 
measure  the  possibilities  of  the  individual  in  any 
given  season.  But  even  if  the  seed  cannot  be 
grown  by  the  acre  and  the  product  measured  in 
tons,  what  other  industry  would  in  a  few  months 
return  from  one-tenth  of  an  acre  so  large  a  re- 
turn? Other  flower  seeds  are  profitably  grown, 
but  none  produce  such  returns. 


SEED    GROWING  107 

Vegetable  Seed  Growing.  At  the  present 
time  vegetable  seeds  are  usually  grown  on  the 
contract  system,  the  stock  seed  being  supplied 
by  the  contractor  under  number  at  a  given  price, 
the  product  to  be  paid  for  at  an  agreed  figure. 
Under  this  system  varieties  have  become  gen- 
eral mixtures  and  the  trade  has  in  a  measure 
lost  its  character.  There  is  little  inducement 
for  improvement  and  little  hope  for  high  grade 
seed  under  this  system.  The  plan  produces 
good  seed  when  judged  on  the  basis  of  viabil- 
ity, but  high-grade  seed  should  be  distinctive 
and  true  to  type. 

A  few  growers  are  making  a  specialty 
of  selecting  and  breeding  high-grade  seed. 
These  growers  demand  and  are  able  to  secure 
an  extra  price  for  their  produce.  When 
the  work  is  carefully  and  conscientiously  done 
the  grower  can  well  afford  to  pay  from  fifty  to 
two  hundred  per  cent,  more  for  select  seed. 
The  advantages  are  higher  viability,  which 
means  a  better  stand;  trueness  to  type,  which 
means  a  more  uniform  product  and  more  even 
maturity,  factors  of  the  greatest  economic  im- 
portance in  commercial  garden  operations. 
The  men  who  are  carrying  on  such  work  are  so 
few  that  their  output  makes  little  impression 
on  the  trade.  The  writer  knows  of  but  two 


108      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

men  handling  cabbage  seed  in  this  way,  one 
who  grows  asparagus  roots  from  carefully  se- 
lected seed,  a  half  dozen  who  grow  selected 
onion  seed,  one  who  is  selecting  beets,  and  a 
few  greenhouse  growers  who  select  their  own 
lettuce  and  cucumber  seed. 

The  seed  industry  is  the  basis  of  all  successful 
market  gardening  and  truck  farming.  Thous- 
ands of  dollars  are  expended  in  the  erection  of 
greenhouses  and  forcing  plants  and  in  the  equip- 
ment of  farms  and  gardens  for  growing  vege- 
tables from  seed  the  grower  knows  nothing 
about.  It  is  strange  that  people  will  risk  equip- 
ment, labor,  and  skill  in  attempting  to  produce 
high-grade  products  from  nondescript  seed. 
Yet  this  is  the  general  practice  among  truck 
farmers. 

The  success  attained  by  such  men  as  W.  W. 
Rawson  with  special  cucumber  seed,  by  Mr. 
Hittinger  with  the  Belmont  Forcing  lettuce,  by 
Mr.  Davis  with  the  Grand  Rapids  Forcing  let- 
tuce, and  of  the  Senior  Livingston  in  the  breed- 
ing of  tomatoes,  should  be  a  sufficient  guarantee 
to  justify  persons  with  a  love  for  such  work 
devoting  their  time  and  energies  to  it.  To  suc- 
ceed one  must  understand  the  peculiarities  of 
the  crop.  Have  a  suitable  location,  soil,  and 
climate  and  know  the  market  demands,  and  if 


SEED   GROWING  109 

in  addition,  a  thorough  working  knowledge  of 
the  science  of  plant  breeding  is  possessed,  suc- 
cess will  be  more  certain  and  earlier. 

What  has  been  accomplished  with  corn  and 
cotton  can  be  attained  with  the  vegetable  crops. 
In  fact,  the  problem  is  half  solved  with  the 
vegetables.  There  is  an  abundance  of  forms. 
What  is  needed  is  intelligent  selection  of  parent 
stock  and  persistent  line  breeding  to  establish 
and  maintain  high-grade  strains  of  seed.  New 
sorts  are  not  needed.  Seed  true  to  name,  with 
good  growing  power,  will  solve  the  problem. 
That  these  results  can  be  attained  is  amply 
proved  by  the  success  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  in  its  efforts  to  elimi- 
nate the  green  sport  from  Grand  Rapids  let- 
tuce, and  in  establishing  a  superior  strain  of 
early  cauliflower,  and  incidentally  in  demon- 
strating the  commercial  possibility  of  growing 
cauliflower  seed  in  Eastern  United  States. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE   NURSERY   AN   EXAMPLE    OF   INTENSIVE 
CROP    PRODUCTION 

THE  nursery  business  like  the  seed  busi- 
ness has  become  commercialized.     It  is 
now  carried  on  on  a  large  scale  by  com- 
petent business  managers  and  has  very  largely 
been  reduced  to  a  process  of  plant  manufactur- 
ing.    Because  fruit  and  ornamental  plants  lend 
themselves  to  rapid  multiplication  on  an  exten- 
sive scale  the  intensive  industry  now  recognized 
has  been  made  possible. 

Peach  pits  planted  in  the  autumn  will  have 
by  the  following  July  produced  plants  large 
enough  to  bud  with  the  desired  sorts.  The 
work  of  budding  can  be  done  rapidly  and  still 
secure  a  large  percentage  of  successes.  This 
makes  it  possible  to  produce  plants  true  to  va- 
riety in  immense  numbers.  Hundreds  of  thou- 
sands are  annually  grown  by  some  of  the  large 
nursery  firms.  These  small  plants  do  not  de- 
mand a  great  deal  of  space.  They  are  usually 
planted  in  rows  three  and  one-half  to  four  feet 
no 


THE  NURSERY  m 

apart,  and  the  young  plants  six  to  eight  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  The  buds  set  in  July  and 
August  do  not  start  in  to  growth  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  but  as  soon  as  the  top  of  the 
original  seedling  is  cut  away  the  dormant  bud 
pushes  rapidly  into  growth,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  season,  on  good  soil  and  with  good  cultiva- 
tion, a  marketable  tree  worth  from  twenty  to 
one  hundred  dollars  per  thousand  has  been 
produced. 

At  the  distances  mentioned  it  is  possible  to 
grow  22,300  plants  per  acre.  Plums  can  be 
produced  in  the  same  way  and  in  the  same 
length  of  time.  Nowadays  apples  are  handled 
in  much  the  same  way,  but  instead  of  the  seed- 
lings being  grown  in  place  they  are  grown  by 
others  in  a  different  section.  The  year  old 
seedlings  are  purchased  by  the  nurserymen  and 
either  used  for  root  grafting  or  are  lined  out 
in  nursery  rows  four  feet  apart  with  the  plants 
eight  to  ten  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Yearling 
plants  lined  out  this  way  in  April  or  May  will 
have  formed  growth  to  permit  budding  them  in 
July  and  August.  The  buds  set  in  the  autumn 
will  during  the  next  year  produce  a  large  ma- 
jority of  trees  suitable  for  the  market.  Soil, 
climate,  culture,  and  the  variety  all  influence  the 
size  and  character  of  the  product. 


112      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

Root  grafting  produces  trees  for  the  trade 
in  the  same  length  of  time,  but  as  a  rule  the 
budded  tree  will  be  largest.  This  is  undoubt- 
edly due  to  the  fact  that  the  entire  root  is  used 
when  the  seedlings  are  lined  out  for  budding, 
but  only  a  fraction  of  the  root  is  used  for  piece 
root  grafting.  This  is  not  the  place  for  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  relative  merits  of  the  two  sys- 
tems of  propagation.  The  point  is  that  in  two 
years  from  the  time  the  seedling  is  placed  in  the 
nursery  row  a  merchantable  tree  can  be  pro- 
duced either  by  budding  or  by  root  grafting. 
The  return  per  acre  varies  with  the  variety  and 
the  method  followed  in  disposing  of  the  stock. 

Nowadays  there  is  less  difference  between 
the  wholesale  and  retail  price  of  nursery  stock 
than  formerly.  The  greatest  difference  is 
found  between  purchases  made  through  agents 
and  those  made  direct  from  the  nurseryman. 
It  is  more  economical  for  the  planter  to  pur- 
chase direct  from  the  grower  whenever  prac- 
ticable. 

While  mention  has  only  been  made  of 
peaches,  plums,  and  apples,  the  whole  list  of 
nursery  products  is  handled  on  the  same  inten- 
sive scale. 

Strawberries  are  propagated  by  runners 
sometimes  by  the  hundred  acres,  millions  of 


THE  NURSERY  113 

plants  being  produced.  A  large  number  of 
plants  can  be  grown  on  an  acre,  and  at  the 
usual  wholesale  price  of  $2.50  to  $5.00  per 
thousand  plants,  a  very  satisfactory  business 
can  be  built  up.  Like  all  other  special  indus- 
tries, it  requires  skill  and  good  business  ability. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

IRRIGATION 

IRRIGATION  may  be  of  two  kinds,— irri- 
gation to  supplement  normal  precipitation 
in  humid  regions;  or  irrigation  to  provide 
moisture  for  crop  production  in  arid  regions. 

Irrigation  when  used  as  a  supplement  to  nor- 
mal precipitation  is  considered  as  a  form  of 
crop  insurance,  and  is  employed  only  with  crops 
producing  a  large  net  return  per  acre.  This 
method  of  using  water  and  its  economic  effects 
are  discussed  in  connection  with  the  subject  of 
crop  insurance  as  well  as  under  the  special  crops 
requiring  irrigation  in  humid  sections.* 

No  single  factor  in  agricultural  practice 
offers  greater  advantages  than  a  controllable 
water  supply.  Water  under  control  can  be 
applied  as  the  soil  and  the  plant  require  it  and 
in  such  quantity  as  the  species  demands.  The 
advantages  of  such  a  controlled  water  supply 
need  no  demonstration  or  argument. 

*  See  also  "  Garden  Farming." 
114 


IRRIGATION  115 

Accurate  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  ap- 
plying water,  as  well  as  the  requirements  of  the 
various  agricultural  crops,  are  prime  essentials 
to  the  successful  use  of  a  controllable  water  sup- 
ply. These  factors  vary  with  the  soil,  the  con- 
tour of  the  land,  the  season  of  the  year,  and 
the  crop.  For  these  reasons  each  irrigated  dis- 
trict should  be  provided  with  an  experiment 
station  where  these  important  local  factors  may 
be  determined. 

Irrigation  entails  high  fixed  charges.  Land 
with  a  water  right  is  necessarily  expensive. 
The  original  cost  of  canals,  laterals,  and  tile 
drainage  are  all  items  entering  into  the  ulti- 
mate cost  of  irrigable  lands.  An  annual  rental 
or  charge  based  on  land  or  water  units  must  be 
paid  for  the  maintenance  of  canals  and  laterals 
where  the  system  is  a  co-operative  enterprise 
among  the  farmers  benefited.  When  the  water 
is  provided  by  a  private  corporation  the  charge 
for  water  must  not  only  pay  the  costs  of  main- 
tenance but  must  provide  a  dividend  on  the  cap- 
ital invested. 

The  cost  of  providing  water  varies  from  a 
few  dollars  per  acre,  for  the  man  who  can  di- 
vert water  from  a  perennial  stream  upon  his 
own  land,  to  as  much  as  $35  to  $70  per  acre 
where  larger  canals  are  required.  The  annual 


116      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

water  rental  varies  from  fifty  cents  to  $2.50 
per  acre. 

Irrigated  lands  are  valued  at  from  $100  to 
$1,500  per  acre,  depending  upon  their  location 
and  the  crops  for  which  they  are  adapted. 

Economics  of  Irrigated  Land. — Land  val- 
ued at  $150  per  acre  with  an  annual  water 
charge  of  $1.50,  has  an  annual  fixed  charge  of 
interest  and  taxes  on  $150  plus  a  pro  rata 
amount  of  the  general  improvement  of  the 
place,  plus  $1.50  water  rent.  An  example  of 
what  this  change  may  be  is  afforded  by  the 
following: 

40  acres  of  raw  land  at  $150.00 $6,000.00 

House    1,000.00 

Barn    400.00 

Other  buildings    300.00 

Fencing    200.00 

Cistern  or  well  125.00 


Total    $8,025.00 

To  which  must  be  added  cost  of  tools,  teams, 
and  other  equipment,  together  with  an  annual 
charge  for  depreciation  on  all  equipment  of  at 
least  ten  per  cent,  and  some  classes  should  be 
charged  a  much  higher  rate  even  than  this. 
Teams,  tools,  and  equipment 800.00 

8,825.00 

Depreciation   on   $800.00 $80.00 

Interest  on  $8,825.00  at  .08= 706.00 

Water  rent  at  $1.50 60.00 


Annual    fixed    charge $846.00 

Annual  fixed  charge  per  acre 21.15 


IRRIGATION  117 

Crop  Rotations  on  Irrigable  Lands. — The 
crop  rotation  which  can  be  practiced  on  any 
given  area  will  depend  upon  latitude  and  cli- 
mate of  the  area,  and  the  size  and  accessibility 
of  markets. 

Latitude  and  Climate. — The  latitude  and 
climate  of  a  region  determines  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  the  crop  possibilities  of  that  region. 
A  northern  latitude  and  a  high  altitude  mean 
short  seasons  and  a  limited  crop  list. 

Southern  latitudes  and  sea  level  mean,  as  a 
rule,  long  seasons  and  correspondingly  long 
and  valuable  lists  of  products. 

To  illustrate,  take  the  possible  crop  list  of 
irrigated  areas  between  100  and  no  meridians 
and  north  of  the  38  parallel.  The  crop  list 
is  confined  to  wheat,  oats,  barley,  corn  (in 
part) ,  alfalfa,  millet,  sorghum,  potatoes,  sugar 
beets,  cabbage,  peas,  turnips,  beans.  Among 
fruits,  apples  in  certain  portions,  strawberries 
and  small  fruit. 

Take  a  farm  where  grain  farming  only  can 
be  followed. 

40  acres,  one  acre  for  house  lot 

9  acres  in  sugar  beets,  15  tons  at  $5.00 $  675.00 

10  ;<    potatoes,     150  bu.     at      .35 525.00 

10  "    oats,  70  bu.     at      .30 210.00 

10      "      "    alfalfa,         30  tons  at    5.00 150.00 


Total  gross   income $1,560.00 

"      per  acre 39.00 

As  has  been  noted,  the  fixed  charges  against 


118      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

such  a  farm  amount  to  $21.15  per  acre.  $39 
less  $2i.i5=$i7.85  gross  profit,  from  which 
must  be  deducted  cost  of  hired  help  and  a  wage 
for  the  owner  if  he  works  the  place. 

Allow  $240  for  hired  help  ana  there  would 
exist  a  net  profit  of  $11.85  Per  acre  on  tne 
year's  operations.  It  is  evident  from  this  cal- 
culation that  a  more  remunerative  cropping  sys- 
tem must  be  devised  in  order  to  make  irrigation 
pay.  The  question  is  can  this  be  done  under 
the  environment?  An  analysis  of  this  case 
shows  that  alfalfa  at  $15  per  acre  gross  gives 
a  loss  of  $6.15  per  acre  plus  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. Either  the  crop  must  be  abandoned 
or  a  more  profitable  method  of  disposing  of  it 
devised.  It  is  likely  that  if  the  alfalfa  were  fed 
to  dairy  cows  it  would  return  a  larger  income 
than  by  direct  sale.  If  it  can  be  made  to  re- 
turn the  equivalent  of  the  annual  fixed  charge 
per  acre  it  will  be  wise  to  retain  it  in  the  rota- 
tion, for  it  prepares  the  land  for  profitable 
crops  of  both  potatoes  and  sugar  beets. 

The  cropping  system  mentioned  is  about  as 
profitable  as  any  that  can  be  devised  for  this 
environment.  In  order,  therefore,  to  make  a 
place  of  this  size  produce  a  day  wage  for  the 
owner  it  will  be  necessary  to  change  the  plan 
of  utilization  so  as  to  sell  the  alfalfa  more  ad- 


IRRIGATION  119 

vantageously.  If  dairy  cows  can  be  handled  so 
as  to  make  the  alfalfa  profitable  a  secondary 
profit  will  at  once  appear  in  the  pigs  and  calves 
that  can  be  grown  on  the  skim  milk. 

In  the  event  that  dairying  proves  to  be  the 
solution  of  the  problem  the  herd  should  be  ad- 
justed to  the  working  force  of  the  family  so  as 
not  to  create  an  added  labor  charge.  In  con- 
trast with  this  let  us  make  an  inventory  of  a 
forty-acre  tract  located  farther  south  and  near 
the  sea  level. 

The  cropping  system  and  return  from  a 
forty-acre  place  under  irrigation  in  a  more  fa- 
vorable location : 


Value  of  land  $200  per  acre,  interest  8%,  charge $16.00 

Value   of   improvements   $50  per   acre,   interest  8%, 

charge    4.00 

Water  charge  1.50 

Taxes  i.oo 

Total  annual  charge  per  acre $22.50 

Rotation : 

8  acres  alfalfa  (4  tons  at  $6),  $24 $  192.00 

'     oats,  800  bu.  at  3oc 240.00 

8      "     potatoes,  2,400  bu.  at  3oc 720.00 

8      "     alfalfa    192.00 

8           beets  (15  tons  at  $6),  $90 720.00 

40)  $2,064.00 


Total  gross  per  acre 51.60 

Total  fixed  charge  per  acre 22.50 

Total  margin  of  profit  from  which  cost  of  pro- 


120      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

duction  must  be  deducted 29.10 

Total  margin  on  40  acres 1,164.00 

L,abor  hired    600.00 


Total  net  profit  or  labor  income $   564.00 

In  some  other  locality  where  economic  con- 
ditions were  different  land  bearing  the  same 
overhead  charges  might  be  made  to  pay  a  hand- 
some profit.  If  the  gross  return  from  potatoes 
were  fifty  cents  per  bushel  and  the  gross  return 
for  beets  were  $5.50  per  ton,  and  alfalfa  pro- 
duced a  gross  return  of  $45.00  per  acre,  then 
a  four-year  rotation  such  as  has  been  described, 
would  bear  the  fixed  charges  and  pay  a  profit. 

A  40-acre  orange  grove,  with  paid-up  water  right, 

at  $500  per  acre $20,000.00 

Three  years'  maintenance  at  $50  per  acre,  plus 

$15  per  acre  annual  water  charge 7,800.00 

$27,800.00 
Interest  on  $27,800  for  3  years  at  8% 6,672.00 


$34,472.00 

INCOME  FROM  CROP 
3rd  year — I  box  per  tree  (80  per  acre 

at   $i)     $  3,200.00 

Less  cost  of  production...    4,000.00 


Profit    —800.00 

Interest  on  $34,472  at  8%..     2,757.76 

Net  cost    3,55776 

Total  cost  to  end  of  3rd  year $38,030.00 

4th year — Estimated  value  of  crop...$  7,000.00 
Cost   of   production 4,000.00 


Income    3,000.00 


IRRIGATION  121 

Interest   on   $38,030 3,043.00 

Net  return  — 43-OO 


Total  cost  at  end  of  4th  year $38,073.00 

5th year — Estimated  value  of  crop.  ..$15,000.00 
Cost  of  production 6,000.00 

Income    9,000.00 

Interest  on  $38,073 3,046.00 


Net   return    5,954-QO 


Total  cost  at  end  of  5th  year $32,119.00 

6th year — Estimated  value  of  crop... $16,000.00 
Cost  of  production 6,000.00 


Income    10,000.00 

Interest  on  $32,119 2,570.00 


Net  return  7,430.00 


Total  cost  at  end  of  6th  year $24,689.00 

7th  year — Estimated  value  of  crop. .  .$18,000.00 
Cost  of  production 6,000.00 

Income    12,000.00 

Interest  on  $24,689 i,975.oo 

Net  return   10,025.00 

Total  cost  at  end  of  7th  year $14,664.00 

8th  year — Estimated  value  of  crop . . .  $20,000.00 
Cost  of  production 6,000.00 

Income    14,000.00 

Interest  on  $14,664 1,173.00 


Net  return   12,827.00 

Total  cost  at  end  of  8th  year $  1,837.00 


122      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

Qthyear — Estimated  value  of  crop. .  .$20,000.00 
Cost  of  production 6,500.00 


Income    13,500.00 

Interest  on  $1,837 147.00 

Net  return   i3,353-oo 

Total  net  income  in  9  years $11,516.00 

To  which  must  be  added  present  worth 
of  the  4O-acre  grove  at  $1,000 
per  acre  40,000.00 


Total  value  at  end  of  gth  year 51,516.00 

Less  original   investment 20,000.00 

Net  gain  $31,516.00 

In  this  case  the  minimum  gross  return  is  esti- 
mated at  $80  and  the  maximum  at  $500  per 
acre.  Such  incomes  amply  justify  the  large  ex- 
penditures for  improvement  and  maintenance. 
Crops  that  return  an  income  of  less  than  $70  to 
$100  per  acre  gross  cannot  be  made  to  pay  in- 
terest and  produce  a  revenue  on  many  irrigated 
areas. 

Such  crops  as  celery,  onions,  cabbage,  pota- 
toes, sugar  beets,  or  some  of  the  seed  crops 
which  return  a  large  profit  per  unit  are  the  only 
ones  that  can  be  profitably  handled  under  irri- 
gation outside  the  fruits,  such  as  oranges, 
lemons,  apples,  pears,  stone  fruits,  and  straw- 
berries. 

Every  system  of  agriculture  should  be  stud- 
ied in  detail  in  some  such  manner  as  we  have 


IRRIGATION  123 

analyzed  these  types  of  irrigation  farming  be- 
fore their  advantages  or  defects  can  be  detected. 
In  fact,  an  analysis  of  this  character  is  the  only 
method  by  which  the  non-productive  factors  in 
a  rotation  can  be  detected.  By  determining  the 
"  pay  streaks  "  and  improving  them  and  at  the 
same  time  finding  out  the  "  dead  heads  "  and 
eliminating  them  so  far  as  practicable  is  the 
only  sane  method  of  improving  the  economic 
condition  of  the  farm  unit.  It  is  a  question  of 
following  and  improving  the  pay  and  of  stop- 
ping the  leaks.  The  more  expensive  the  plant 
and  the  more  intensive  the  industry  the  greater 
the  importance  and  significance  of  such  an 
analysis. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

ANIMAL    INDUSTRY 

ANIMAL  industry  has  in  the  past  been 
considered  among  the  extensive  rather 
than  the  intensive  industries.  It  is  quite 
true  that  the  grazing  of  cattle  on  a  thousand 
hills  is  extensive  agriculture,  but  animal  indus- 
try is  not  confined  to  cattle  and  sheep  grazing. 
It  includes  the  breeding  of  thoroughbred  stock 
of  various  sorts,  and  the  rearing  and  fattening 
of  animals  for  special  purposes,  such  as  hot- 
house lambs  and  pigs  for  special  brands  of  sau- 
sage and  bacon.  These  industries  are  highly 
intensive  and  require  great  knowledge,  care, 
and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  manager. 

Breeding  of  Thoroughbred  Animals. — No 
branch  of  agriculture  requires  greater  skill, 
keener  judgment,  and  more  constant  attention 
for  success  than  animal-breeding.  No  line  of 
agricultural  work,  however,  affords  greater  sat- 
isfaction or  better  rewards  than  successful 
breeding.  The  original  investment  in  animals 
of  high  individual  merit  from  the  leading  fami- 
124 


ANIMAL    INDUSTRY         125 

lies  of  their  class  is  large.  The  risk  involved  is 
therefore  great,  and  although  great  care  has 
been  exercised  to  mate  animals  of  superior  merit 
for  many  generations  in  all  the  well-established 
breeds,  it  does  not  follow  that  every  individual 
will  prove  to  be  a  potent  stock  getter.  Animals 
with  great  prepotency  are  highly  prized.  They 
give  character  to  the  family  and  often  guaran- 
tee ready  sale  at  high  prices  for  all  offspring  of 
their  get.  The  male  is  usually  the  dominant 
factor  both  in  breeding  cattle  and  horses,  but 
the  female  transmits  through  her  male  offspring 
such  superior  qualities  as  great  butter  or  milk 
production,  or  in  the  case  of  horses  great  track 
performance.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  both  sides  of  the  house  be  noted 
for  the  same  line  of  performance. 

While  these  records  are  important  and  are 
likely  to  give  the  desired  result,  they  are  not  a 
guarantee.  Experience  proves  that  certain 
animals  from  the  same  litter  will  possess  marked 
value  as  breeding  individuals,  while  an  own 
brother  from  the  same  litter  will  be  almost 
worthless.  There  are  many  records  of  this  sort 
among  dogs  and  pigs.  The  development  of 
special  purpose  breeds  of  animals  has  come 
about  entirely  as  a  result  of  the  skill  of  the 
breeders.  The  peculiar  markings  of  the  breeds 


126      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

have  become  almost  constant.  The  general  con- 
formation of  the  animal;  the  ability  to  lay  on 
fat  at  an  early  age;  to  produce  a  large  quantity 
of  butter  fat  are  all  marked  characters  of  cer- 
tain breeds  and  strains.  In  sheep  certain  breeds 
have  been  developed  for  mutton,  others  for 
wool  of  various  grades,  and  still  others  for  large 
increase  as  in  the  case  of  the  Horned  Dorset, 
which  nearly  always  produces  twins  and  fre- 
quently breeds  twice  a  year. 

While  it  is  possible  to  develop  highly  special- 
ized breeds,  it  is  not  possible  to  unite  in  a  single 
breed  the  highest  development  of  opposing  at- 
tributes. To  illustrate,  beef  production  and 
milk  production  are  opposite  attributes.  The 
breeds  or  strains  highly  developed  for  milk  or 
butter  production  are  not  the  best  for  beef  pro- 
duction and  vice  versa.  The  draught  and  race 
horses  represent  highly  developed  breeds  with 
contrasting  characters.  From  what  has  been 
stated  an  idea  of  the  intricate  character  of  the 
problems  of  animal-breeding  can  be  formed. 
The  evolution  of  breeds  of  animals  like  the  de- 
velopment of  nations  has  its  history.  To  suc- 
ceed in  the  work  one  must  be  familiar  with  this 
history,  know  the  royal  strains  of  blood,  and 
be  able  to  recognize  the  marks  of  superiority  in 
the  young  animal. 


ANIMAL   INDUSTRY         127 

The  history  of  the  Short  Horn  cattle  is  most 
interesting  and  illustrates  the  possibilities  of 
animal-breeding  as  well  as  the  great  value  of 
individual  animals.  The  sale  at  New  York 
State  Mills  demonstrated  the  worth  of  individ- 
uals of  certain  families. 

The  record  of  any  of  the  leading  breeds  of 
hogs,  sheep,  or  poultry  will  afford  equally  strik- 
ing examples  of  high  prices  for  superior  indi- 
viduals. No  line  of  animal  breeding  has  had 
such  an  extraordinary  history  as  the  breeding 
of  Silver  Foxes.  There  have  been  fads  and 
crazes  in  almost  every  department  of  agricul- 
tural activity,  but  none  more  remarkable  than 
that  of  the  fox  industry.  For  a  number  of 
years  a  few  individuals  have  successfully  reared 
these  valuable  animals  in  captivity.  They  have 
demonstrated  that  the  Silver  Fox,  famous  both 
in  literature  and  trade,  is  a  pure  strain,  breed, 
or  species,  and  not  a  sport,  as  has  popularly 
been  supposed. 

The  demonstration  of  this  fact,  together 
with  the  great  value  of  the  pelts  and  the  suc- 
cessful rearing  of  the  animals  in  captivity  has 
made  breeding  stock  sell  for  almost  fabulous 
prices.  Pelts  sometimes  sell  for  $1,000  to 
$1,500  each.  The  great  value  of  the  individ- 
ual, coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  young  are 


128      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

born  in  litters,  has  stimulated  the  greatest  ri- 
valry among  purchasers,  so  that  as  high  as  $15,- 
ooo  has  been  paid  for  a  single  pair.  So  far  as 
is  known  this  marks  the  high  tide  of  speculative 
animal-breeding* 

High  prices  have  frequently  been  paid  for 
superior  individuals  with  a  marked  perform- 
ance record.  Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  and 
poultry  all  have  records  of  notable  sales,  but 
these  were  based  on  performance  records  in 
the  ring  or  on  the  track.  The  fox  business  pro- 
gressed by  leaps  and  bounds,  prices  were 
doubled  in  a  few  months,  and  the  end  is  not 
yet.  Some  of  the  results  counted  as  successes 
in  animal-breeding  have  been  determined  by 
fashion.  Fashion  is  a  merciless  mistress.  It 
builds  fortunes  out  of  fads  and  wrecks  deserv- 
ing industries.  What  fate  awaits  "  Domeno  " 
in  his  new  role  fashion  alone  will  determine, 
but  the  fact  that  the  Silver  Fox  is  a  pure  strain 
and  can  be  successfully  bred  in  captivity  is  an 
important  contribution  to  the  breeding  litera- 
ture of  the  world. 


CHAPTER    XV 

ECONOMICS    OF    INTENSIVE    INDUSTRIES 

THE  intensive  industries  we  have  so  far 
discussed  make  up  the  major  part  of  the 
intensive  agriculture  of  America.  Inten- 
sive agriculture  is  more  than  intensive  agricul- 
tural industries.  It  is  a  complex  consisting  of  a 
number  of  agricultural  industries  so  articulated 
that  the  whole  is  a  harmonious  profitable  unit. 
In  America  the  tendency  during  late  years  has 
been  toward  intensive  industries  instead  of  to- 
ward the  intensive  complex.  The  development 
of  the  single-crop  system  leads  to  the  most  risky 
type  of  agriculture.  Special  or  single-crop  sys- 
tems tend  to  deplete  fertility,  to  fatigue  the 
land,  to  develop  malnutrition  troubles,  and  to 
stimulate  the  ravages  of  both  insect  enemies  and 
fungus  diseases. 

Where  intensive  crops  are  grown  as  single 
crops,  not  as  a  part  of  a  complex  rotation,  it  is 
often  expensive  and  difficult  to  maintain  fertil- 
ity, but  where  the  special  crop  is  articulated 
with  a  rotation  system  which  carries  a  legumi- 
129 


130      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

nous  crop  to  provide  the  nitrogen  a  balanced 
ration  can  easily  be  provided  by  the  purchase 
of  the  two  elements,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash. 

The  complex  which  most  closely  approaches 
the  ideal  is  one  in  which  there  is  a  minimum  of 
waste  and  the  maximum  of  profit.  The  soil 
should  be  continuously  occupied  by  a  growing 
crop  planted  for  profit  or  for  soil  improvement. 
A  maximum  number  of  high  profit-yielding 
crops  should  be  included  in  the  rotation  with- 
out depleting  the  fertility  of  the  land.  The 
labor  supply  should  be  ample,  but  no  more  than 
can  be  continuously  and  profitably  used.  The 
ideal  complex  will  be  so  planned  as  to  use  prac- 
tically the  same  amount  of  labor  the  year  round. 
On  such  a  basis  labor  can  be  more  advanta- 
geously purchased.  A  constant  uniform  labor 
supply  is  more  efficient  and  less  costly  than  a 
fluctuating  supply.  The  by-products  from  one 
crop  should  contribute  to  the  support  of  another 
factor  in  the  complex. 

A  well-planned  and  well-executed  system  of 
diversified  agriculture  should  constitute  the 
most  intensive  system  of  agriculture,  though 
not  perhaps  the  most  profitable.  As  a  rule,  we 
think  the  most  intensive  agriculture  should  be 
the  most  profitable,  but  this  does  not  necessarily 


ECONOMICS  131 

follow.  There  are  few  types  of  agriculture 
which  utilize  land,  labor,  or  products  more  com- 
pletely than  the  dairy  industry  and  none  which 
maintains  fertility  more  perfectly,  yet  the  net 
returns  when  measured  by  cash  receipts  are 
small. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  highly  developed  mar- 
ket garden  may  utilize  the  land  and  labor  just 
as  thoroughly  but  within  itself  produce  no 
means  of  keeping  up  soil  fertility,  and  yet  re- 
turn a  handsome  net  profit.  The  defect  in 
such  a  system  is  that  it  is  dependent  upon  out- 
side sources  for  one  of  its  important  fac- 
tors, viz.,  manure  to  maintain  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.  Fortunately,  however,  the  city  which 
uses  the  products  of  the  garden  has  an  ample 
supply  of  fertilizer  to  return  to  it. 

Special  crops  usually  require  the  purchase  of 
commercial  fertilizers  or  manures  in  order  to 
maintain  fertility.  In  some  cases  highly  prof- 
itable special  crops,  such  as  oranges,  lemons,  or 
other  tree  fruits  which  occupy  the  land  for  a 
period  of  years  may  be  so  handled  as  to  provide 
the  nitrogen  requirements  of  the  crop  by  means 
of  the  growth  of  legumes,  which  when  turned 
under  also  add  to  the  humus  content  of  the  soil. 
Such  a  system  of  management  will  reduce  the 
cost  of  maintenance  and  increase  the  production 


132      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

of  the  plantation.  As  a  rule,  the  use  of  manure 
or  green  crops  turned  under  is  more  economical 
than  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

The  continued  use  of  large  quantities  of 
high-grade  commercial  fertilizers  sooner  or 
later  brings  about  soil  conditions  manifestly 
uncongenial  to  the  plants  as  indicated  by  their 
appearance.  In  humid  regions  this  is  as  a  rule 
easily  corrected  by  the  use  of  stable  manure  in 
large  quantities  or  by  plowing  under  leguminous 
crops,  such  as  crimson  clover  or  cow  peas.  The 
presence  of  liberal  quantities  of  decomposing 
organic  matter  in  the  soil  appears  to  be  essen- 
tial to  correct  adverse  conditions  brought  about 
by  the  excessive  use  of  fertilizers.  Dangers  of 
this  sort  are  not  liable  to  develop  in  a  complex 
based  on  the  sale  of  high-grade  finished  prod- 
ucts such  as  cattle,  horses,  or  dairy  products. 

The  truck  farm,  as  usually  maintained,  is 
above  all  others  the  one  most  liable  to  develop 
uncongenial  soil  conditions.  The  excessive  ap- 
plication of  commercial  fertilizers  without  an 
adequate  use  of  either  stable  or  green  manure 
is  responsible  for  these  troubles.  Now  that  the 
cause  of  the  difficulty  as  well  as  its  remedy  is 
well  understood  it  becomes  an  easy  matter  for 
the  truck  farmer  to  protect  himself  against  such 
misfortunes  by  the  use  of  stable  manure  or  by 


ECONOMICS  130 

using  a  rotation  in  which  green  crops  are  turned 
under. 

Truck  farming,  like  all  other  highly  special- 
ized industries,  has  been  carried  on  in  the  way 
most  "  single  crop  "  systems  of  farming  are 
conducted.  The  industry  is  not  based  on  a  sin- 
gle crop,  but  in  general  the  results  are  much 
the  same  though  from  altogether  a  different 
cause. 

Single-crop  farming,  except  when  based  on 
some  special  perennial  crop,  is  usually  a  pioneer 
type  of  agriculture  and  consists  merely  in  gar- 
nering the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  by  the 
continuous  use  of  a  single  crop.  No  heed  is 
given  to  the  future.  The  plan  is  to  get  the 
greatest  possible  return  in  the  shortest  time,  re- 
gardless of  consequences.  The  same  idea  has 
actuated  the  truck  farmer,  but  his  crops  were 
not  sufficiently  abundant,  without  the  use  of 
fertilizers,  to  be  profitable.  Maximum  yields 
were  desired,  and  as  heavy  dressings  of 
fertilizers  produced  large  yields,  heavy 
applications  of  fertilizers  were,  therefore, 
the  logical  and  necessary  accompaniment  of 
large  yields.  But  there  came  a  time  when 
tHe  soil  reached  its  limit.  The  plant  used  such 
elements  as  it  needed  and  left  the  others.  The 
excess  or  residual  part  of  the  fertilizer  left  in 


134      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

the  soil  after  a  number  of  years  of  intensive 
cropping  with  the  use  of  heavy  applications  of 
fertilizers  brought  about  a  condition  uncon- 
genial to  the  plant  and  actual  toxic  results  fol- 
lowed. Plants  suffering  from  the  results  of 
such  practices  are  abnormal  in  color,  develop- 
ment, and  give  unprofitable  returns. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  CROPPING  SYSTEM  AS  A  UNIT 

THE  average  agricultural  enterprise  of  the 
Middle  West — based  on  grain  and  live 
stock  farming — produces  a  net  profit  to 
the  operator  of  4.5  per  cent.;  any  increase  over 
this  amount  may  be  considered  an  approach  to- 
ward intensive  agriculture.  This  estimate  is 
based  on  the  results  of  more  than  ten  years  of 
careful  statistics  on  individual  farms.  While 
the  rate  is  not  high,  it  is  higher  than  the  rates 
of  interest  paid  on  savings  accounts  and  is  prob- 
ably as  high  as  the  average  net  income  of  any 
Other  extensive  industry. 

This  is  quite  different  from  the  rate  of  profit 
from  special  crops  or  special  types  of  agricul- 
ture. It  is  the  net  income  from  all  the  activities 
of  the  average  farm.  There  are  a  great  va- 
riety of  special  agricultural  industries  which 
produce  much  higher  results.  In  fact,  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  tenant  farming,  when  well 
managed,  as  is  shown  in  southeastern  Mary- 
i35 


136      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

land,*  pays  the  landlord  a  higher  rate  of  income 
than  that  shown  by  this  average  farm.  It  must 
be  remembered  also  that  in  order  that  there 
may  be  an  average  farm  there  are  those  which 
return  more  and  still  others  that  return  a  net 
of  even  less  than  4.5  per  cent. 

In  agriculture  as  in  all  other  lines  of  en- 
deavor the  personal  equation  of  the  operator 
plays  a  most  important  part.  The  influence  of 
this  personal  factor  is  manifest  more  clearly  in 
agriculture  than  in  any  other  calling,  for  the 
reason  that  the  skill  and  judgment  of  the  far- 
mer appear  in  his  crops,  in  the  environment  of 
his  home,  and  in  his  live  stock.  Most  other 
industries  and  trades  are  less  exposed  and  are 
more  restricted.  The  farmer,  on  the  other 
hand,  manifests  his  abilities  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  an  artist,  but  his  canvas  is  his  farm 
and  his  materials  are  his  crops.  The  picture  is 
always  on  exhibition.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  what  makes  up  a  pleasing  and  apparently 
well  conceived  study  may  not  prove  a  satisfac- 
tory one  financially.  Sometimes  the  farmer  who 
is  apparently  the  best  and  most  prosperous 
farmer  of  a  community  is  not  making  money 
and  he  is  not  able  to  determine  the  cause  of  his 
failure.  Such  is  a  case  for  careful  investiga- 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  437,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 


THE   CROPPING  SYSTEM   137 

tion.  Each  factor  in  the  complex  must  be  pains- 
takingly considered  and  the  whole  system  on 
which  the  operation  of  the  farm  rests  must  be 
studied  to  determine  where  it  is  out  of  har- 
mony. 

Sometimes  the  crop  rotation  is  well  suited  to 
the  soil  and  the  system  of  farming,  but  the  man- 
ner of  feeding  is  faulty,  or  the  stock  itself  may 
be  unsuited  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  main- 
tained. The  part  played  by  each  factor  must 
be  carefully  considered  in  order  that  an  opera- 
tion may  be  conducted  at  high  efficiency. 

One  of  the  most  serious  handicaps  to  most 
agricultural  operations  is  the  fluctuating  labor 
requirement.  If  agriculture  could  be  adjusted 
so  as  to  profitably  employ  a  constant  labor  sup- 
ply throughout  the  year  there  would  be  far  less 
difficulty  in  maintaining  a  farm  labor  supply, 
but  so  long  as  farm  labor  is  engaged  for  seven 
or  eight  months  instead  of  for  twelve  months 
there  will  be  farm  labor  problems.  The  great 
number  of  unemployed  in  the  cities  is  cited  as 
an  economic  evil,  but  in  commenting  upon  the 
uneven  distribution  of  immigrants  between  the 
farm  and  city  one  authority  says,  "  They  know 
too  much  to  go  to  the  country."  If  the  labor 
supply  is  the  great  agricultural  problem  of  the 
age,  as  it  is  conceded  to  be,  it  is  evident  that 


138      INTENSIVE  FARMING 

it  cannot  be  remedied  without  a  radical  read- 
justment of  farm  practice  which  will  create  a 
continuous  demand  for  labor  at  a  remunerative 
wage. 

Improved  machinery  has  gone  a  long  way  in 


THE  CROPPING  SYSTEM  139 

smoothing  out  the  inequalities  in  the  labor  re- 
quirements by  making  the  man  and  the  horse 
more  efficient.  The  future  advance  seems  to  lie 
along  the  line  of  the  adaptation  of  the  motor 
tractor  to  the  requirements  of  agriculture,  and 
as  the  demand  for  increased  production  grows, 


140      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

and  it  will  ever  grow  with  higher-priced  land, 
agricultural  efficiency  in  every  line  must  be  more 
carefully  considered. 


Labor  requirement  of 

corn-oat  s-v/heat  and   flax  farm. 

Labor  requirement  of 

New  York  potato,  and  bean 


THE   CROPPING   SYSTEM  141 

The  accompanying  charts  represent  the  horse 
and  man  labor  required  on  two  farms.  Chart 
A  shows  the  amount  and  the  distribution  of  man 
labor  in  the  production  of  potatoes  and  beans 
in  the  climate  of  New  York.  Chart  B  shows 
the  horse  power  required  and  the  periods  in 
which  greatest  demand  is  made  upon  this  same 
farm  in  the  production  of  potatoes  and  beans. 
Chart  C  represents  the  man  labor  required  on 
a  farm  in  which  the  rotation  consists  of  corn, 
oats,  wheat,  and  flax.  This  represents  the  ac- 
tual hours  of  labor  and  shows  the  highpoints 
in  the  system.  Chart  D,  when  compared  with 
C,  indicates  the  relation  between  man  and  horse 
labor  on  such  a  farm  and  points  out  the  periods 
when  horse  power  is  in  greatest  demand. 

These  charts  clearly  bring  out  the  fact  that 
the  maximum  horse  and  man  labor  required 
upon  each  of  these  farms  is  greatly  in  excess  of 
the  average  requirement  for  the  crop.  To  illus- 
trate: During  the  periods  of  harvesting  pota- 
toes and  beans  there  is  a  great  excess  of  both 
man  and  horse  labor  required  over  any  other 
period  during  the  growing  season.  This  period 
of  stress  in  the  potato  and  bean  fields  is  luckily 
not  a  period  of  stress  with  corn,  oats,  wheat,  or 
flax,  so  that  if  the  demands  for  man  and  horse 
labor  during  planting  season  for  corn,  oats, 


142      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

wheat,  and  flax  does  not  overlap  the  period 
when  excessive  man  and  horse  labor  is  required 
by  potatoes  and  beans  these  crops  might  be  sat- 
isfactorily worked  into  a  rotation. 

Chart  E  represents  the  horse  power  required 
by  the  combined  potato-bean  and  corn-oats- 
wheat-flax  rotations.  While  there  are  appreci- 
able variations  in  the  combined  requirements  of 
these  rotations,  the  fluctuation  is  not  greater 
than  in  either  alone.  In  fact,  they  correspond 
pretty  closely  to  the  variations  shown  in  the 
bean-potato  rotation  alone. 

Chart  F  shows  a  combination  of  the  man 
labor  required  on  the  potato  and  bean  farm 
and  the  man  labor  required  on  the  farm  produc- 
ing corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  flax.  While  the  maxi- 
mum requirement  is  slightly  raised  above  the 
maximum  requirement  for  potatoes  and  beans, 
this  increase  is  very  slight,  and  at  other  points 
in  the  chart  the  maximum  is  very  much  more 
nearly  approached  by  a  combination  of  these 
rotations  than  by  growing  either  of  them  sepa- 
rately. 

The  point  is  that  if  it  were  possible  to  have 
labor  charts  for  each  of  the  standard  crops 
grown  in  any  crop  zone  it  would  be  possible 
to  take  into  consideration,  in  making  up  a  crop 
rotation,  not  only  the  returns  from  the  crop  in 


THE   CROPPING  SYSTEM   143 

forage  and  grain,  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility,  but  also  the 
economic  features  of  crop  production  bearing 
upon  the  labor  supply.  The  labor  problem  on 
the  farm  involves  the  economical  distribution  of 
labor  and  as  such  becomes  a  vital  factor  in  the 
crop  rotation.  Crop  rotations  assume  a  new 
aspect  when  labor  distribution  is  added  to  crop 
returns  and  the  maintenance  of  production. 
The  ideal  farm  system  is  one  which  permits 
the  economic  use  of  a  constant  labor  supply  and 
until  such  a  system  is  worked  out  the  labor 
problem  of  the  farm  will  continue  to  exist. 

The  Distribution  Problem.  So  far  factors 
of  crop  production  have  been  the  only  ones 
Considered.  It  is,  however  fully  realized  that 
problems  of  distribution  are  of  equal  rank 
with  those  of  production  and  our  immediate 
advances,  it  is  believed,  lie  in  this  direction. 
Economies  in  field  practices  and  increased 
yields  through  the  use  of  fertilizers  cannot 
be  made  effective  against  increased  transporta- 
tion and  distribution  charges.  Freight  rates 
may  not  actually  be  increased  or  commis- 
sion charges  changed  to  effect  a  very  im- 
portant result  in  net  return  with  a  declining 
market  or  an  increasing  cost  of  production. 
To  illustrate :  The  rates  charged  for  transport- 


144      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

ing  table  grapes  from  western  New  York  points 
to  the  large  cities  of  the  East  are  the  same 
to-day  that  they  were  in  1880.  The  ratio  which 
transportation  bore  to  the  net  return  in  1880 
was  5  per  cent.  In  1900  this  ratio  had  changed 
so  that  the  rate  of  transportation  which  had 
not  been  changed  represented  over  40  per  cent, 
of  the  net  return.  This  state  of  affairs  has 
come  about  through  a  change  in  price  for  the 
commodity. 

Freight  rates  are  assessed  on  the  basis  of 
tonnage  or  a  mileage  charge  and  are  usually 
expressed  in  terms  of  ton  mile.  This  arbitrary 
basis  may  furnish  a  simple  and  satisfactory 
basis  of  computation  for  the  railroads,  but  it 
takes  no  account  of  value,  or  time  required  in 
transit  Farm  products  vary  greatly  in  trans- 
portation requirements.  The  staple  commodi- 
ties, such  as  hay,  grains,  sugar  beets,  etc.,  can 
be  handled  on  a  slow  schedule,  but  perishable 
products  and  live  stock  must  be  transported 
with  the  greatest  dispatch  and  on  fast  sched- 
ules. It  is  obvious  that  time  is  an  important 
element  in  this  problem,  but  up  to  the  present 
our  transportation  agencies  have  not  given  due 
regard  to  it.  In  some  of  the  European  coun- 
tries the  time  factor  is  given  due  weight  in  fix- 
ing charges. 


THE   CROPPING  SYSTEM    145 

The  distribution  problem  involves  not  only 
the  rate  and  price  of  transportation  but  the  area 
covered  by  the  distribution.  One  of  the  great- 
est drawbacks  to  our  present  system  of  market- 
ing is  the  lack  of  direct  distribution.  Nearly  all 
farm  products  offered  for  sale  go  from  the  farm 
direct  to  a  few  large  cities,  the  smaller  cities 
and  towns  depending  upon  a  redistribution  from 
these  large  centers.  This  involves  delay,  dete- 
rioration, an  added  transportation  charge,  re- 
handling,  and  added  commissions,  sometimes 
also  terminal  or  refrigeration  charges,  or  both. 
Is  it  any  wonder  that  perishable  goods  are  stale 
before  they  reach  the  consumer  or  that  prices 
are  high? 

Better  distribution  must  be  considered  as  a 
factor  in  intensive  agriculture.  Intensity  in 
farming  should  mean  effectiveness,  and  effec- 
tiveness in  transportation  is  secured  only 
through  directness.  The  small  city  which  can 
buy  its  perishable  supplies  direct  from  the  pro- 
ducers instead  of  from  another  city  market  will 
in  general  save  in  time,  save  in  freight,  save  in 
expense,  and  save  in  quality  of  the  goods.  Is 
it  worth  while?  It  is,  if  the  dealings  of  a  single 
community  stand  for  anything. 

By  direct,  honest  dealing  this  community, 
through  its  own  selling  agencies,  disposed  of 


146      INTENSIVE   FARMING 

two  million  dollars'  worth  of  its  own  products 
at  its  own  shipping  point,  so  that  the  prices  re- 
ceived saved  to  the  community  the  cost  of  trans- 
porting the  crops  to  the  city  market,  a  saving  of 
fully  $150,000.  The  purchaser  paid  no  more 
for  the  goods  or  for  freight  than  would  have 
been  paid  had  he  bought  them  second  hand  in 
the  city.  Second  hand  goods  are  usually  a 
little  stale.  By  direct  purchase  the  dealer  in 
the  small  city  actually  saved  on  first  cost,  paid 
no  more  freight,  secured  fresher  goods,  and  by 
so  doing  gave  his  customers  a  better  product. 


THE   END 


INDEX 


Agriculture  can  be  capital- 
ized, 15;  complex,  130; 
reaches  perfection  In 
growing  vegetables  un- 
der glass,  56. 

American    Beauty   rose,    102. 

Animal   industry,    124. 

Apple  and  transportation, 
59;  cultivation,  64;  han- 
dling, 69;  industry,  59; 
packing,  70;  effect  of 
soil  and  climate  on,  63; 
storing  by  owner,  76; 
varieties,  relation  to  in- 
dustry, 59. 

Apples,  age  of  bearing  va- 
rieties, 64;  co-operative 
marketing,  76;  harvest- 
ing, 68;  marketing,  74; 
propagation,  111;  selling 
at  auction,  75;  selling 
on  the  trees,  75;  uses  of, 
73;  wholesale  system  of 
selling,  75. 

\jea,  cultivated,  increased 
production  from,  15; 
limited  for  frame  farm- 
ers, 44. 

Areas,  available,  increased 
production,  13. 

Back   to   the  land,    13 

Bailey,    103. 

Barrel  stock.  71. 

Barry,    103. 

Bartram,   103. 

Bearing  age  varies,   64. 

Bermuda  onion  seed,     28. 

Black  raspberries  for  dry- 
ing, 86. 

Blanching  with  boards  or 
paper,  34. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  35. 

Box   apples,    70. 

Boxing  of  apples,  70. 


Breeding  for  special  pur- 
poses, 125;  live  stock, 
risk  in,  125;  of  carna- 
tions, 102;  of  thorough- 
bred animals,  124. 

Bull,    103. 

Business,  commission,  laws 
for  protection  of,  78. 

Cabbage   seed,    108. 

Canning,  73;  influence  on 
food  supply,  14, 

Capitalized,  agriculture  can 
be,  15. 

Capital  required,   22. 

Carnation   breeding,   102. 

Cauliflower,    109. 

Celery,  32;  a  cool-climate, 
moisture-loving  plant, 
32;  blanched  with 
boards,  34;  blight,  35; 
cost  of  production,  38; 
hollowness  or  pithiness, 
37;  in  Florida,  34;  in 
Sacramento  Valley,  33; 
irrigation,  36;  is  sold  by 
the  dozen  bunches,  34; 
seed,  value  of  good,  37; 
self-blanching  types,  33; 
shipped  long  distances, 
33;  sprinkler  system,  36; 
the  late  crop  at  the 
North,  34. 

Cider,  73. 

Citrus  fruit  handling,  scien- 
tific management,  15; 
fruit,  marketing,  90; 
groves,  location  of  89.; 
industry,  88;  industry, 
specialized,  88. 

Citrus,   varieties,   90. 

Cloches,    41. 

Cold  frames,  18;  storage,  14; 
storage,  gravity  brine, 
61;  storage,  influence  on 
apple  Industry,  60. 


INDEX 


Consumption,  Increase  home, 

Contour  planning,  orchard, 
65. 

Corn,    high    protein,    100. 

Cost  of  irrigation  agricul- 
ture, 117;  of  production 
of  onions  compared,  31; 
of  providing  water,  115. 

Cover  crops  in  the  orchard, 
67. 

Crop  insurance,  42;  insur- 
ance tends  to  intensify 
industry,  43;  rotation  on 
irrigated  land,  117. 

Crops  grown  in  forcing 
houses,  48. 

Cucumber   seed,    108. 

Cucumbers,  56;  greenhouse, 
temperature  for,  58; 
grown  after  lettuce,  57. 

Cultivation  of  apple,  64. 

Dairy  industry,  131 ;  as  ex- 
ample of  scientific  man- 
agement, 15. 

Danvers    section,    28. 

Darwin,     Chas.,     104. 

Davis,    Mr.    108. 

Decline  in  exports,  12. 

Decrease  the  individual  ra- 
tion, 12. 

Denia  onion,   27. 

Distribution  a  factor  in  in- 
tensive agriculture,  146; 
of  farm  products,  144; 
of  onion  industry,  24. 

Double   cropping,    18. 

Downing,    103. 

Early  potatoes  for  city  mar- 
kets, 21. 

Eastern    grape    industry,    82. 

Economics  of  intensive  in- 
dustries, 129. 

Economics  of  irrigated  land, 

Evaporating,    73. 

Exports,  decline  in,  12;  of 
grain  and  bread  stuffs, 
12. 

Farm,  return  from  average, 
135. 

Farmer  compared  to  artist, 
136. 

Farming,  intensive  not  re- 
stricted to  fruit  growing 
and  gardening,  16;  in- 
tensive, object  of,  16; 
Single  crop  system,  14. 

Fashion  a  merciless  mis- 
tress, 128. 


Financial  risk  In  breeding 
live  stock,  125. 

Flower    seed,    105. 

Fluctuation  of  labor  re- 
quirements, 137. 

Forcing  house,   18;   industry, 

Forsyth,    103. 

Frame  culture,     41;     culture 
insures    crop,    43;    farm- 
ers,     area     limited,      44; 
farming,      18;       farming, 
returns  from,  42. 
Freight    rates,    144. 
Fruit      growers'       exchange, 
91;    growing,    59. 

Grades,    market,    14. 

Gideon,    Peter,     103. 

Gladiolus,     101. 

Good  seed,  37. 

Grain  and  meats  kept  for 
future  needs,  13. 

Grand  Rapids  Forcing  let- 
tuce, 51.  108. 

Grape  culture  and  science. 
83;  culture,  high  art,  83; 
industry,  eastern,  82; 
industry,  Pacific  coast, 
82. 

Grapes,    81. 

Gravity  brine  cold  storage, 
61. 

Green  bunch  onion  Indus- 
try, 26;  bunch  onion, 
perishable,  29;  crops  and 
manure  correct  ill  ef- 
fects of  fertilizers,  132; 
crops  more  economical 
than  fertilizers,  132. 

Gross  return  from  onion,  30. 

Grower,   truck,   14. 

Growth,    index    of,    66. 

Hand    glasses,    41. 

Handling  of  apples,   69. 

Harvesting   apples,    68. 

Heated   glass   structure,    18 

Henderson,    103. 

High  prices  for  superior  in- 
dividuals, 128;  protein 
corn,  100. 

Hill  selection,  96;  selection 
of  potatoes,  98. 

Hot   beds,    18. 

Illinois  Kxperiment  Station, 
100. 

Immigrants  do  not  go  to 
country  districts,  137. 

Improved  methods  of  han- 
dling fruit,  61. 

Increase  in  town  and  city 
population,  13. 


INDEX 


111 


Increased  home  consump- 
tion, 12. 

Increased  production  from 
area  cultivated,  15. 

Increasing  population,   11. 

Indicator  value  of  annual 
growth,  66. 

Industries,  intensive,  eco- 
nomics of,  129. 

Intensive  crops  grown  as 
single  crops,  129;  farm- 
ing not  restricted  to 
fruit  growing  and  gar- 
dening, 1C;  farming,  ob- 
ject of,  16;  farming  re- 
quires great  expendi- 
ture. 16. 

Irrigated  land,  crop  rotation 
on,  117;  economics  of, 
116. 

Irrigation,  114;  agriculture 
cost  of,  117;  entails  high 
fixed  charges,  115;  of 
celery,  36. 

Jellies,    73. 

Knight,    Thos.    Andrew,    104. 

Labor  distribution,  a  factor 
in  crop  rotation,  143; 
requirement,  fluctuation 
of,  137;  requirement, 
maximum  for  most 
crops  greatly  in  excess 
of  average,  142;  re- 
quirements of  different 
farms,  138;  supply  and 
crop  systems,  130;  sup- 
ply great  agricultural 
problem,  138. 

Land,    back  to,   13. 

Latitude  and  climate,   117. 

Laws  for  protection  of  com- 
mission business,  78. 

Lemon   curing,    93. 

Length  of  growth,  index  of, 

Lettuce,  48;  forcing,  re- 
turns from,  50;  Grand 
Rapids,  51;  sorts  for 
forcing,  49 

Livingston,    103. 

Location  of  citrus  groves, 
89;  of  onion  industry, 

Machinery,  improved,  part 
played  by,  in  agricul- 
ture, 138. 

Maintenance  of  fertility  in 
orchard,  78. 

Management,  citrus  fruit 
handling  scientific,  15; 
scientific,  15;  scientific, 


citrus  fruit  handling,  15; 
scientific,  dairy  indus- 
try as  example,  15. 

Market   gardener,    14. 

Marketing  apples,  74;  of 
apples  by  co-operation, 
76;  of  citrus  fruit,  90. 

Maximum  labor  requirement 
greatly  exceeds  aver- 
age, 142. 

Mendel,    104. 

JSXSS!."*.  "$,  103. 

Muslins,  18;  or  muslin-cov- 
ered frames,  18. 

Net  return  from  average 
farm,  135. 

"  New  Celery  Culture,"  39; 
onion  culture,  25;  sorts 
not  needed,  109. 

Nlelson,    104. 

Nondescript  seed,    108. 

"  Non-restrictive  season." 
59. 

Nursery,   110. 

Object  of  intensive  farm- 
ing, ie. 

Onion  varieties.   29. 

Onion  industry,  location  of, 
27;  seed  growing,  28; 
seed  growing  regions, 
28;  sets,  26;  storage,  29. 

Onions,  24;  cost  of  pro- 
duction compared,  31: 
distribution  of  industry, 
24;  for  transplanting, 
25;  from  seed,  24;  gross 
return  from.  30;  under 
irrigation,  28. 

Pacific  coast  grape  indus- 
try, 82. 

Part  played  by  Improved 
machinery  in  agricul- 
ture. 138. 

Peach    propagation,    110. 

Perfect   fruits  keep  best,  62. 

Perishable  green  bunch  on- 
ions, 29. 

Personal  equation  in  agri- 
culture, 136. 

Pests  of  forced  tomatoes, 
55;  of  growing  tomatoes, 
55. 

Petunia    seed,    105. 

Phylloxera,    81 

Planning    the    orchard,    65. 

Plant  breeding,  95:  breed- 
ing carries  element  of 
chance,  104. 

Plants  for   special  purposes, 


IV 


INDEX 


Population  Increasing,  11; 
regulate  increase,  12. 

Potato  as  a  wealth  pro- 
ducer, 19;  crop,  value  of, 
19;  growing  a  high  art, 
20;  implements,  21;  on- 
ion. 26. 

Potatoes,  19;  capital  re- 
quired, 22;  harvested  as 
soon  as  tubers  are  large 
enough,  21;  highly  pro- 
ductive strains,  20;  hill 
selection,  98;  table  of 
cost,  22. 

Precooling,    92. 

Prince,    103. 

Production,  increase  from 
available  areas,  13. 

"  Progeny  row,"   20. 

Propagation,  apples,  111; 
peach,  110;  plums,  111; 
strawberries,  112. 

Protective  devices,  18. 

Rapid   transportation,    14. 

Raspberries,  84;  black  and 
red,  85;  black  for  dry- 
ing, 86. 

Rawson,    W.   W.,   108. 

Red  and  black  raspberries, 
85. 

Refrigeration   in  transit,    93. 

Refrigerator  car,   14. 

Regulate  increase  in  popu- 
lation, 12. 

Relation  of  apple  varieties 
to  industry,  59. 

Returns  from  frame  farm- 
ing, 42;  from  lettuce 
forcing,  50. 

Root   grafting,    112. 

Scientific  management,  15. 

Seed   growing,    105. 

Selection,    results    of,    97. 

Short    Horn   cattle.    127. 

Silver  Foxes,   127. 

Single-crop  farming,  pioneer 
farming,  133;  systems  of 
farming,  14. 

Small  fruit,   81. 

Soil  and  climate,  effect  on 
apple,  63;  capacity 
measured,  11;  heat,  18. 


Spanish   onion,    27. 

Special   crops,    17;   crops  re- 
quire   fertilizers,    131;    or 
single-crop  systems  tend 
to    deplete    fertility,    129. 
Spencer,    Herbert,    104 

Spraying,  67;  for  insects  and 
diseases,  62. 

Sprinkler  system  for  celery, 
36. 

Statistics   of   population,    13. 

Storage  of  onions,  29. 
Strawberries,    84, 

Strawberry  propagation.   112 

Success  of  growing  toma- 
toes under  glass,  55. 

Succession   of  crops,    18. 

Swamp   muck   lands,   32. 

Temperature  for  greenhouse 
cucumbers,  58. 

Texas  Bermuda  onion  in- 
dustry, 25. 

Tillable  area  under  fence, 
11. 

Tomato  growing  pests,  55; 
growing,  success  of  un- 
der glass,  55. 

Tomatoes,  52;  as  a  forced 
crop,  52;  forced,  pests  of, 
55;  greenhouse,  yield  of, 
54;  sold  by  weight,  54. 

Tracy,    103. 

Transportation  and  the  ap- 
ple, 59;  influence  on 
forcing  industry,  47; 
rapid,  14;  requirements 
of  crops  vary,  145. 

Truck  farming  compared  to 
single-crop  system,  133; 
grower,  14. 

Tschermak,    104. 

Tuber  harvested  as  soon  as 
large  enough,  21. 

"  Tuber   unit  "   method,    20. 

Vegetable  seed  growing,  107. 

Wallace,   Alfred   Russel,    104. 

Water,  cost  of  providing, 
115. 

Wholesale  and  retail  price 
of  nursery  stock.  112. 

Wide  distribution  steadies 
market,  77. 


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pack  and  head.  Every  step  is  traced — the  selection  of  provisions 
and  utensils,  with  the  kind  and  quantity  of  each,  the  preparation  of 
game,  the  building  .of  fires,  the  cooking  of  every  conceivable  kind  of 
food  that  the  camp  outfit  or  woods,  fields  or  streams  may  provide — 
even  to  the  making  of  desserts.  Every  recipe  is  the  result  of  hard 
practice  and  long  experience. 


3.  BACKWOODS  SURGERY  AND  MEDICINE, 

by  Charles  S.  Moody,  M.  D.  A  handy  book  for  the  pru- 
dent lover  of  the  woods  who  doesn't  expect  to  be  ill  but  believes  in 
being  on  the  safe  side.  Common-sense  methods  for  the  treatment 
of  the  ordinary  wounds  and  accidents  are  described — setting  a 
broken  limb,  reducing  a  dislocation,  caring  for  burns,  cuts,  etc. 
Practical  remedies  for  camp  diseases  are  recommended,  as  well  as 
the  ordinary  indications  of  the  most  probable  ailments.  Includes  a 
list  of  the  necessary  medical  and  surgical  supplies. 

4.  APPLE  GROWING,  by    M.    C.    Burritt.    The 

various  problems  confronting  the  apple  grower,  from  the  preparation 
of  the  soil  and  the  planting  of  the  trees  to  the  marketing  of  the  fruit, 
are  discussed  in  detail  by  the  author.  Chapter  headings  are: — The 
Outlook  for  the  Growing  of  Apples — Planning  for  the  Orchard — 
Planting  and  Growing  the  Orchard— Pruning  the  Trees — Cultivation 
and  Cover  Cropping — Manuring  and  Fertilizing — Insects  and  Dis- 
eases Affecting  the  Apple — The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Spraying 
— Harvesting  and  Storing — Markets  and  Marketing — Some  Hints  on 
Renovating  Old  Orchards— The  Cost  of  Growing  Apples. 

5.  THE  AIREDALE,  by   Williams   Haynes.     The 

book  opens  with  a  short  chapter  on  the  origin  and  development  of 
the  Airedale,  as  a  distinctive  breed.  The  author  then  takes  up  the 
problems  of  type  as  bearing  on  the  selection  of  the  dog,  breeding, 
training  and  use.  The  book  is  designed  for  the  non-professional  dog 
fancier,  who  wishes  common  sense  advice  which  does  not  involve 
elaborate  preparations  or  expenditure.  Chapters  are  included  on  the 
care  of  the  dog  in  the  kennel  and  simple  remedies  for  ordinary 
diseases. 


6.  THE  AUTOMOBILE— Its  Selection,  Care  and 

Use,  by  Robert  S1O88.  This  is  a  plain,  practical  discussion  of 
the  things  that  every  man  needs  to  know  if  he  is  to  buy  the  right  car 
and  get  the  most  out  of  it.  The  various  details  of  operation  and 
care  are  given  in  simple,  intelligent  terms.  From  it  the  car  owner 
can  easily  learn  the  mechanism  of  his  motor  and  the  art  of  locating 
motor  trouble,  as  well  as  how  to  use  his  car  for  the  greatest  pleasure. 
A  chapter  is  included  on  building  garages. 

7.  FISHING     KITS     AND     EQUIPMENT,    by 

Samuel  G.  Camp.  A  complete  guide  to  the  angler  buying  a  new 
outfit.  Every  detail  of  the  fishing  kit  of  the  freshwater  angler  is  de- 
scribed, from  rodtip  to  creel,  and  clothing.  Special  emphasis  is  laid 
on  outfitting  for  fly  fishing,  but  full  instruction  is  also  given  to  the 
man  who  wants  to  catch  pickerel,  pike,  muskellunge,  lake-trout,  bass 
and  other  freshwater  game  fishes.  Prices  are  quoted  for  all  articles 
recommended  and  the  approved  method  of  selecting  and  testing  the 
various  rods,  lines,  leaders,  etc.,  is  described. 


8.  THE  FINE  ART  OF  FISHING,  by  Samuel  G. 

Camp.  Combine  the  pleasure  of  catching  fish  with  the  gratification 
of  following  the  sport  in  the  most  approved  manner.  The  sugges- 
tions offered  are  helpful  to  beginner  and  expert  anglers.  The  range 
of  fish  and  fishing  conditions  covered  is  wide  and  includes  such  sub- 
jects as  "Casting  Fine  and  Far  Off,"  "Strip-Casting  for  Bass,"  "Fish- 
ing  for  Mountain  Trout"  and  "Autumn  Fishing  for  Lake  Trout." 
The  book  is  pervaded  with  a  spirit  of  love  for  the  etreamside  and 
the  out-doors  generally  which  the  genuine  angler  will  appreciate. 
A  companion  book  to  "Fishing  Kits  and  Equipment."  The  advice 
on  outfitting  so  capably  given  in  that  book  is  supplemented  in  this 
later  work  by  equally  valuable  information  on  how  to  use  the 
equipment. 

9.  THE  HORSE— Its  Breeding,  Care  and  Use,  by 
David  Buffum.     Mr.  Buffum  takes  up  the   common,  every-day 
problems   of  the   ordinary  horse-users,  such  as   feeding,  shoeing, 
simple  home  remedies,  breaking  and  the  cure   for  various  equine 
vices.     An  important  chapter  is  that  tracing  the  influx  of  Arabian 
blood  into  the  English  and  American  horses  and  its  value  and  limi- 
tations.   Chapters  are  included  on  draft-horses,  carriage  horses,  and 
the  development  of  the  two-minute  trotter.    It  is  distinctly  a  sensible 
book  for  the  sensible  man  who  wishes  to  know  how  he  can  improve 
his  horses  and  his  horsemanship  at  the  same  time. 


10.  THE  MOTOR  BOAT— Its  Selection,  Care  and 

Use,  by  H.  W.  Slauson.  The  intending  purchaser  i9  advised 
as  to  the  type  of  motor  boat  best  suited  to  his  particular  needs  and 
how  to  keep  it  in  running  condition  after  purchased.  The  chapter 
headings  are:  Kinds  and  Uses  of  Motor  Boats— When  the  Motor 
Balks— Speeding  of  the  Motor  Boat— Getting  More  Power  from  a 
New  Motor— How  to  Install  a  Marine  Power  Plant— Accessories- 
Covers,  Canopies  and  Tops — Camping  and  Cruising — The  Boathouse. 

11.  OUTDOOR  SIGNALLING,   by  Elbert  Wells. 

Mr.  Wells  has  perfected  a  method  of  signalling  by  means  of  wig- 
wag, light,  smoke,  or  whistle  which  is  as  simple  as  it  is  effective. 
The  fundamental  principle  can  be  learned  in  ten  minutes  and  its 
application  is  far  easier  than  that  of  any  other  code  now  in  use. 
It  permits  also  the  use  of  cipher  and  can  be  adapted  to  almost  any 
imaginable  conditions  of  weather,  light,  or  topography. 

12.  TRACKS  AND  TRACKING,  by  Josef  Brunner. 

After  twenty  years  of  patient  study  and  practical  experience,  Mr. 
Brunner  can,  from  his  intimate  knowledge,  speak  with  authority  on 
this  subject.  "Tracks  and  Tracking"  shows  how  to  follow  intelli- 
gently even  the  most  intricate  animal  or  bird  tracks.  It  teaches  how 
to  interpret  tracks  of  wild  game  and  decipher  the  many  tell-tale 
signs  of  the  chase  that  would  otherwise  pass  unnoticed.  It  proves 
how  it  is  possible  to  tell  from  the  footprints  the  name,  sex,  speed, 
direction,  whether  and  how  wounded,  and  many  other  things  about 
wild  animals  and  birds.  All  material  has  been  gathered  first  hand ; 
the  drawings  and  half-tones  from  photographs  form  an  important 
part  of  the  work. 


13.    WING  AND  TRAP-SHOOTING,  by  Charles 

Asking.  Contains  a  full  discussion  of  the  various  methods, 
such  as  snap-shooting,  swing  and  half-swing,  discusses  the  flight  of 
birds  with  reference  to  the  gunner's  problem  of  lead  and  range  and 
makes  special  application  of  the  various  points  to  the  different  birds 
commonly  shot  in  this  country.  A  chapter  is  included  on  trap 
shooting  and  the  book  closes  with  a  forceful  and  common-sense 
presentation  of  the  etiquette  of  the  field. 


14.  PROFITABLE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY,  by 

Arthur  S.  Wheeler.  Mr.  Wheeler  discusses  from  personal  ex- 
perience the  best-known  general  purpose  breeds.  Advice  is  given 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  man  who  desires  results  in  eggs  and  stock 
rather  than  in  specimens  for  exhibition.  In  addition  to  a  careful 
analysis  of  stock — good  and  bad — and  some  conclusions  regarding 
housing  and  management,  the  author  writes  in  detail  regarding 
Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Orpingtons,  Rhode  Island  Reds, 
Mediterraneans  and  the  Cornish. 

15.  RIFLES  AND  RIFLE  SHOOTING,  by  Charles 

Asking.  A  practical  manual  describing  various  makes  and  mechan- 
isms, in  addition  to  discussing  in  detail  the  range  and  limitations  in 
the  use  of  the  rifle.  Treats  on  the  every  style  and  make  of  rifle 
as  well  as  their  use.  Every  type  of  rifle  is  discussed  so  that  the 
book  is  complete  in  every  detail. 

16.  SPORTING  FIREARMS,  by  Horace  Kephart. 

This  book  is  the  result  of  painstaking  tests  and  experiments.  Prac- 
tically nothing  is  taken  for  granted.  Part  I  deals  with  the  rifle,  and 
Part  II  with  the  shotgun.  The  m:m  seeking  guidance  in  the  selec- 
tion and  use  of  small  firearms,  as  well  as  the  advanced  student  of 
the  subject,  will  receive  an  unusual  amount  of  assistance  from  this 
work.  The  chapter  headings  are  Rifles  and  Ammunition — The 
Flight  of  Bullets— Killing  Power— Rifle  Mechanism  and  Materials- 
Rifle  Sights— Triggers  and  Stocks— Care  of  Rifle— Shot  Patterns  and 
Penetration — Gauges  and  Weights — Mechanism  and  Build  of 
Shotguns. 

17.  THE  YACHTSMAN'S  HANDBOOK,  by  Herbert 

L.  Stone.  The  author  and  compiler  of  this  work  is  the  editor  of 
"Yachting."  He  treats  in  simple  language  of  the  many  problems 
confronting  the  amateur  sailor  end  motor  boatman.  Handling 
ground  tackle,  handling  lines,  taking  soundings,  the  use  of  the  lead 
line,  care  and  use  of  sails,  yachting  etiquette,  are  all  given  careful 
attention.  Some  light  is  thrown  upon  the  operation  of  the  gasoline 
motor,  and  suggestions  are  made  for  the  avoidance  of  engine 
troubles. 

18.  SCOTTISH  AND  IRISH  TERRIERS,  by  Wil- 
liams Haynes.     This  is  a  companion  book  to  "The  Airedale," 
and  deals  with  the  history  and  development  of  both  breeds.    For 
the  owner  of  the  dog,  valuable  information  is  given  as  to  the  nee  of 
the  terriers,  their  treatment  in  health,  their  treatment  when  sick, 
the  principles  of  dog  breeding,  and  dog  shows  and  rules. 


19.  NAVIGATION  FOR  THE  AMATEUR,  by  Capt. 

E.  T.  Morton.  A  short  treatise  on  the  simpler  methods  of  find- 
ing position  at  sea  by  the  observation  of  the  sun's  altitude  and  the 
use  of  the  sextant  and  chronometer.  It  is  arranged  especially  for 
yachtsmen  and  amateurs  who  wish  to  know  the  simpler  formulae 
for  the  necessary  navigation  involved  in  taking  a  boat  anywhere  off 
shore.  Illustrated  with  drawings.  Chapter  headings :  Fundamental 
Terms— Time— The  Sumner  Line- The  Day's  Work,  Equal  Altitude, 
and  Ex-Meridian  Sights — Hints  on  Taking  Observations. 

20.  OUTDOOR  PHOTOGRAPHY,  by  Julian  A. 

Dimock.  A  solution  of  all  the  problems  in  camera  work  out-of- 
doors.  The  various  subjects  dealt  with  are :  The  Camera — Lens  and 
Plates — Light  and  Exposure — Development — Prints  and  Printing — 
Composition — Landscapes — Figure  Work— Speed  Photography — The 
Leaping  Tarpon— Sea  Pictures— In  the  Good  Old  Winter  Time — 
Wild  Life. 

21.  PACKING    AND    PORTAGING,    by    Dillon 

Wallace.  Mr.  Wallace  has  brought  together  in  one  volume  all 
the  valuable  information  on  the  different  ways  of  making  and  carry- 
ing the  different  kinds  of  packs.  The  ground  covered  ranges  from 
man-packing  to  horse-packing,  from  the  use  of  the  tump  line  to 
throwing  the  diamond  hitch. 

22.  THE  BULL  TERRIER,  by  Williams  Haynes. 
This  is  a  companion  book  to  "The  Airedale"  and  "Scottish  and  Irish 
Terriers"  by  the  same  author.    Its  greatest  usefulness  is  as  a  guide 
to  the  dog  owner  who  wishes  to  be  his  own  kennel  manager.    A  full 
account  of  the  development  of  the  breed  is  given  with  a  description 
of  best  types  and   standards.    Recommendations  for  the  care  of 
the  dog  in  health   or  sickness  are  included.    The  chapter  heads 
cover  such  matters  as: — The  Bull  Terrier's  History — Training   the 
Bull  Terrier— The  Terrier  in  Health— Kenneling— Diseases. 


23.  THE  FOX  TERRIER,  by   Williams   Haynes. 

As  in  his  other  books  on  the  terrier,  Mr.  Haynes  takes  up  the  origin 
and  history  of  the  hreed,  its  types  and  standards,  and  the  more  ex- 
clusive representatives  down  to  the  present  time.  Training  the  Fox 
Terrier — His  Care  and  Kenneling  in  Sickness  and  Health — and  the 
Various  Uses  to  Which  He  Can  Be  Put — are  among  the  phases 
handled. 

24.  SUBURBAN    GARDENS,    by    Grace    Tabor. 

Illustrated  with  diagrams.  The  author  regards  the  house  and 
grounds  as  a  complete  unit  and  shows  how  the  best  results  may  be 
obtained  by  carrying  the  reader  in  detail  through  the  various  phases 
of  designing  the  garden,  with  the  levels  and  contours  necessary, 
laying  out  the  walks  and  paths,  planning  and  placing  the  arbors, 
summer  houses,  seats,  etc.,  and  selecting  and  placing  trees,  shrubs, 
vines  and  flowers.  Ideal  plans  for  plots  of  various  sizes  are  appended , 
as  well  as  suggestions  for  correcting  mistakes  that  have  been  made 
through  "starting  wrong." 


25.  FISHING    WITH    FLOATING    FLIES,   by 

Samuel  G.  Camp.  This  is  an  art  that  is  comparatively  new  in 
this  country  although  English  anglers  have  used  the  dry  fly  for 
generations.  Mr.  Camp  has  given  the  matter  special  study  and  is 
one  of  the  few  American  anglers  who  really  understands  the  matter 
from  the  selection  of  the  outfit  to  the  landing  of  the  fish.  His  book 
takes  up  the  process  in  that  order,  namely — How  to  Outfit  for  Dry 
Fly  Fishing— How,  Where,  and  When  to  Cast— The  Selection  and 
Use  of  Floating  Flies — Dry  Fly  Fishing  for  Brook,  Brown  and 
Rainbow  Trout— Hooking,  Playing  and  Landing — Practical  Hints  on 
Dry  Fly  Fishing. 

26.  THE  GASOLINE  MOTOR,  by  Harold  Whiting 

SI  au  soil.  Deals  with  the  practical  problems  of  motor  operation. 
The  standpoint  is  that  of  the  man  who  wishes  to  know  how  and 
why  gasoline  generates  power  and  something  about  the  various 
types.  Describes  in  detail  the  different  parts  of  motors  and  the 
faults  to  which  they  are  liable.  Also  gives  full  directions  as  to  re- 
pair and  upkeep.  Various  chapters  deal  with  Types  of  Motors — 
Valves  —  Bearings  —  Ignition  —  Carburetors  —  Lubrication —  Fuel  — 
Two  Cycle  Motors. 


27.  ICE  BOATING,  by  H.  L  Stone,    illustrated  with 

„  -ams.  Here  have  been  brought  together  all  the  available  in- 
formation on  the  organization  and  history  of  ice-boating,  the  build- 
ing of  the  various  types  of  ice  yachts,  from  the  small  15  footer  to 
the  600-foot  racer,  together  witn  detailed  plans  and  specifications. 
Full  information  is  also  given  to  meet  the  needs  of  those  who  wish 
to  be  able  to  build  and  sail  their  own  boats  but  are  handicapped  by 
the  lack  of  proper  knowledge  as  to  just  the  points  described  in  this 
volume. 

28.  MODERN   GOLF,  by  Harold  H.  Hilton.    Mr. 

Hilton  is  the  only  man  who  has  ever  held  the  amateur  champion- 
ship of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  in  the  same  year.  In 
addition  to  this,  he  has,  for  years,  been  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  intelligent,  steady  players  of  the  game  in  England.  This  book 
is  a  product  of  his  advanced  thought  and  experience  and  gives  the 
reader  sound  advice,  not  so  much  on  the  mere  swinging  of  the  clubs 
as  in  the  actual  playing  of  the  game,  with  all  the  factors  that  enter 
into  it.  He  discusses  the  use  of  wooden  clubs,  the  choice  of  clubs, 
the  art  of  approaching,  tournament  play  as  a  distinct  thing  in  itself, 
and  kindred  subjects. 

29.  INTENSIVE   FARMING,  by  L.   C.   Corbett. 

A  discussion  of  the  meaning,  method  and  value  of  intensive  methods 
in  agriculture.  This  book  is  designed  for  the  convenience  of  prac- 
tical farmers  who  find  themselves  under  the  necessity  of  making  a 
living  out  of  high-priced  land. 

30.  PRACTICAL  DOG  BREEDING,  by  Williams 

Haynes.  This  is  a  companion  volume  to  PRACTICAL  DOG 
KEEPING,  described  below.  It  goes  at  length  into  the  funda- 
mental questions  of  breeding,  such  as  selection  of  types  on  both 
sides,  the  perpetuation  of  desirable,  and  the  elimination  of  undesir- 
able, qualities,  the  value  of  prepotency  in  building  up  a  desired 
breed,  etc.  The  arguments  are  illustrated  with  instances  of  what 
has  been  accomplished,  both  good  and  bad,  in  the  case  of  well- 
known  breeds. 

31.  PRACTICAL    DOG  KEEPING,  by  Williams 
Haynes.     Mr.  Haynes  is  well  known  to  the  readers  of  the  OUTING 
HANDBOOKS   as  the  author  of  books  on  the  terriers.    His  new 
book  is  somewhat  more  ambitious  in  that  it  carries   him  into  the 
general  field  of  selection  of  breeds,  the  buying  and  selling  of  dogs, 
the  care  of  dogs  in  kennels,  handling  in  bench  shows  and  field  trials, 
and  at  considerable  length  into  such  subjects  as  food  and  feeding, 
exercise  and  grooming,  disease,  etc. 


32.  PRACTICAL  TREE  PLANTING,  by  C.  R. 

Pettis.  The  author,  who  is  the  New  York  State  Forester,  takes  up 
the  general  subject  of  reforesting,  covering  nature's  method  and  the 
practical  methods  of  broadcast  seed-sowing,  seed  spot  planting, 
nursery  practice,  etc.  The  various  species  are  described  and  their 
adaptability  to  varying  conditions  indicated.  Results  of  reforesting 
are  shown  and  instructions  are  given  for  the  planting  of  wind- 
breaks and  shade  trees. 

33.  GUNSMITHING  FOR  THE   AMATEUR,  by 

Edward  C.  Grossman.  Mr.  Grossman,  who  is  one  of  the  best- 
known  rifle  experts  in  the  country,  takes  up  in  detail  the  care  and 
repair  of  the  gun.  He  discusses  such  questions  as  The  Present 
Development  of  the  Gun — Tools  for  the  Amateur — Rifle  Barrels — 
Smooth  Bore  Barrels — Rifle  Actions — Pistol  and  Gun  Actions — Re- 
finishing  and  Processing — The  Stock,  Sights  and  Aids  to  Accuracy. 

34.  PISTOL  AND  REVOLVER  SHOOTING,  by  A.  L. 

A.  Himmelwright.  A  new  and  revised  edition  of  a  work  that  has 
already  achieved  prominence  as  an  accepted  authority  on  the  use  of 
the  hand  gun.  Full  instructions  are  given  in  the  use  of  both  revolver 
and  target  pistol,  including  shooting  position,  grip,  position  of  arm,  etc. 
The  book  is  thoroughly  illustrated  with  diagrams  and  photographs 
and  includes  the  rules  of  the  United  States  Revolver  Association 
and  a  list  of  the  records  made  both  here  and  abroad. 

35.  PIGEON  RAISING,  by  Alice  MacLeod.    This 

is  a  book  for  both  fancier  and  market  breeder.  Full  descriptions 
are  given  of  the  construction  of  houses,  the  care  of  the  birds,  pre- 
paration for  market,  and  shipment.  Descriptions  of  the  various 
breeds  with  their  markings  and  characteristics  are  given.  Illustrated 
with  photographs  and  diagrams. 

36.  INSECTS  ON  THE  FARM,  by  E.  P.  Felt. 

A  practical  manual  by  the  New  York  State  Entomologist.  He 
classifies  insects — good  and  bad — according  to  crops  and  gives  direc- 
tions for  the  eradication  of  the  harmful  and  the  encouragement  of 
the  desirable.  Full  descriptions  are  given  of  the  principal  varieties. 


37.  MARINE     GAS    ENGINEERING,    by  A.  L. 

Brennan,  Jr.  This  is  a  practical  manual  written  from  the  stand- 
point of  a  teaching  engineer.  All  the  details  of  marine  gas  engine 
construction  and  operation  are  described,  step  by  step,  with  explan- 
atory diagrams.  All  technical  terms  and  appliances  are  fully  denned 
and  the  latest  developments  and  refinements  are  traced  and  described. 
It  is  a  book  for  the  man  .who  wants  to  understand  and  operate  his 
own  engine. 

38.  THE  RUNNING  HOUND,  by  Roger  Williams. 

This  includes  the  greyhound  and  all  the  deer  and  staghounds  that 
run  by  sight  alone.  The  origin  of  the  various  breeds  is  traced  and 
and  striking  individuals  in  each  class  are  described.  Instructions 
are  given  for  breeding,  care  and  training  for  field  and  show  purposes. 
Illustrated  with  photographs  of  types. 

39.  SALT  WATER  GAME  FISHING,  by  Charles 

F.  Holder.  Mr.  Holder  covers  the  whole  field  of  his  subject 
devoting  a  chapter  each  to  such  fish  as  the  tuna,  the  tarpon,  amber- 
jack,  the  sail  fish,  the  yellow-tail,  the  king  fish,  the  barracuda,  the 
sea  bass  and  the  small  game  fishes  of  Florida,  Porto  Rico,  the  Pacific 
Coast,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines.  The  habits  and  habitats  of  the 
fish  are  described,  together  with  the  methods  and  tackle  for  taking 
them.  The  book  concludes  with  an  account  of  the  development 
and  rules  of  the  American  Sea  Angling  Clubs.  Illustrated. 

40.  WINTER  CAMPING,  by  Warwick  S.  Carpenter. 
A  book  that  meets  the  increasing  interest  in  outdoor  life  in  the  cold 
weather.   Mr.  Carpenter  discusses  such  subjects  as  shelter  equipment, 
clothing,  food,  snowshoeing,  skiing,  and  winter  hunting,  wild  life  in 
winter  woods,  care  of  frost  bite,  etc.    It  is  based  on  much  actual  ex- 
perience in  winter  camping  and  is  fully  illustrated  with  working 
photographs. 

41.  THE  TRAILING  HOUND,  by  Roger  Williams. 

In  this  book  General  Williams  takes  up  the  hounds  that  run  by  scent, 
such  as  the  foxhound,  the  bloodhound,  and  the  beagle.  He  gives 
full  instructions  for  care  in  the  kennels,  feeding,  treatment  of  disease, 
breeding,  etc.,  and  follows  it  up  with  directions  for  training  for  field 
and  show  purposes.  Illustrated  with  photographs  of  the  various 
types  which  are  fully  described  in  the  text. 

42.  BOAT  AND  CANOE  BUILDING,  by  Victor 

Slocum.  All  of  us  like  to  think  we  could  build  a  boat  if  we  had 
to.  Mr.  Slocum  tells  us  how  to  do  it.  Designs  are  given  for  the 
various  types  of  canoes  as  well  as  full  descriptions  for  preparing  the 
material  and  putting  it  together.  Small  dories  and  lapstreak  boats 
are  also  included. 


43.  BASS  AND   BASS   FISHING,  by    James  A. 

Henshall.  Mr.  Henshall  has  made  a  special  study  of  the  basses 
in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  a  work  for  which  his  connection 
with  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  has  given  him  exceptional  opportunities. 
He  discusses  the  habits  of  the  bass  and  the  methods  and  tackle 
appropriate  for  its  capture.  He  also  gives  in  detail  the  latest  facts 
in  regard  to  the  artificial  culture  and  planting  of  this  valuable 
game  fish. 

44.  BOXING,   by  D.   C.  Hutchison.      Practical  in- 

struction  for  men  who  wish  to  learn  the  first  steps  in  the  manly 
art.  Mr.  Hutchison  writes  from  long  personal  experience  as  an 
amateur  boxer  and  as  a  trainer  of  other  amateurs.  His  instructions 
are  accompanied  with  full  diagrams  showing  the  approved  blows 
and  guards.  He  also  gives  full  directions  for  training  for  condition 
without  danger  of  going  stale  from  overtraining.  It  is  essentially  a 
book  for  the  amateur  who  boxes  for  sport  and  exercise. 

45.  TENNIS   TACTICS,  by  Raymond  D.    Little. 

Out  of  his  store  of  experience  as  a  successful  tennis  player,  Mr. 
Little  has  written  this  practical  guide  for  those  who  wish  to  know 
how  real  tennis  is  played.  He  tells  the  reader  when  and  how  to 
take  the  net,  discusses  the  relative  merits  of  the  back-court  and 
volleying  game  and  how  their  proper  balance  may  be  achieved; 
analyzes  and  appraises  the  twist  service,  shows  the  fundamental 
necessities  of  successful  doubles  play. 

46.  THE  AUXILIARY  YACHT,  by  H.  L.  Stone. 

Combines  information  on  the  installation  of  power  in  a  boat  that 
was  not  designed  especially  for  it  with  the  features  desirable  in  de- 
signing a  boat  for  this  double  use.  Deals  with  the  peculiar  proper- 
ties of  the  auxiliary,  its  advantages  and  disadvantages,  the  handling 
of  the  boat  under  sail  and  power,  etc.  Does  not  go  into  detail  on 
engine  construction  but  gives  the  approximate  power  needed  for 
different  boats  and  the  calculations  necessary  to  find  this  figure. 

47.  TAXIDERMY,  by  Leon  L.  Pray.    Illustrated  with 

diagrams.  Being  a  practical  taxidermist,  the  author  at  once  goes  into 
the  question  of  selection  of  tools  and  materials  for  the  various  stages 
of  skinning,  stuffing  and  mounting.  The  subjects  whose  handling 
is  described  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  every-day  ones,  such  as 
ordinary  birds,  small  mammals,  etc.,  although  adequate  instructions 
are  included  for  mounting  big  game  specimens,  as  well  as  the  pre- 
liminary care  of  skins  in  hot  climates.  Full  diagrams  accompany 
the  text. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


Form  L-9-10m-5,'28 


6 
435 

C&U 


of  CALIFOWOA 
ANGELES 


